{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T23:46:30Z","timestamp":1792799190746,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768521600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"ZonMw-VIDI grant 2023","award":["09150172210050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["09150172210050"]}]},{"name":"Diabetes Fonds grant","award":["2024.10.005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024.10.005"]}]},{"name":"BREAKTHROUGH T1D Grant","award":["4-SRA-2025-1766-M-B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4-SRA-2025-1766-M-B"]}]},{"name":"NWO-VICI grant 2020","award":["09150182010020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["09150182010020"]}]},{"name":"ERC Advanced grant","award":["101141346"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101141346"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early life is a critical window for immune system development, during which the gut microbiome shapes innate immunity, antigen presentation, and adaptive immune maturation. Disruptions in microbial colonization\u2014driven by factors such as cesarean delivery, antibiotic exposure, and formula feeding\u2014deplete beneficial early-life taxa (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, and Enterococcus) and impair key microbial functions, including short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production by these keystone species, alongside regulatory T cell induction. These dysbiosis patterns are associated with an increased risk of pediatric autoimmune diseases, notably type 1 diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and juvenile idiopathic arthritis. This review synthesizes current evidence on how the early-life microbiota influences immune maturation, with potential effects on the development of autoimmune diseases later in life. We specifically focus on human observational and intervention studies, where treatments with probiotics, synbiotics, vaginal microbial transfer, or maternal fecal microbiota transplantations have been shown to partially restore a disrupted microbiome. While restoration of the gut microbiome composition and function is the main reported outcome of these studies, to date, no reports have disclosed direct prevention of autoimmune disease development by targeting the early-life gut microbiome. In this regard, a better understanding of the early-life microbiome\u2013immune axis is essential for developing targeted preventive strategies. Future research must prioritize longitudinal evaluation of autoimmune outcomes after microbiome modulation to reduce the burden of chronic immune-mediated diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14010210","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T14:46:33Z","timestamp":1768574793000},"page":"210","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Early-Life Gut Microbiota: Education of the Immune System and Links to Autoimmune Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-4604-2755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pleun","family":"de Groen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of (Experimental) Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Diabeter Center Amsterdam, 1066 EC Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samantha C.","family":"Gouw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Hematology, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9541-7244","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nordin M. J.","family":"Hanssen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of (Experimental) Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Diabeter Center Amsterdam, 1066 EC Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1926-7659","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Max","family":"Nieuwdorp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of (Experimental) Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Diabeter Center Amsterdam, 1066 EC Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7742-0092","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Rampanelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of (Experimental) Vascular Medicine, Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity (AII), 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2018-317503","article-title":"Role of the microbiome in human development","volume":"68","author":"Knight","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-022-00974-4","article-title":"Microbiota in health and diseases","volume":"7","author":"Hou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. 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