{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T02:01:08Z","timestamp":1770084068642,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769990400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan","award":["\u2116 AP23488291"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u2116 AP23488291"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydrocarbon-based rocket fuels, particularly kerosene grades T-1 and RG-1 used during launch vehicle operations, represent a persistent source of soil contamination in areas impacted by rocket stages. This study quantitatively evaluates the response and recovery dynamics of soil microbial communities in Calcisol (Loamic) soils from the U-25 impact area near the \u201cBaikonur\u201d Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan) under controlled kerosene contamination. Eleven soil samples were monitored over 90 days, including one uncontaminated control and ten samples exposed to increasing concentrations of T-1 or RG-1 (100\u201315,000 mg\/kg). Microbial indicators included total microbial count, actinomycetes, microscopic fungi, and spore-forming bacteria, expressed as CFU\/g (mean \u00b1 SD, n = 3). Acute exposure caused significant reductions in total microbial abundance (28\u201358%) and microscopic fungi (43\u201375%, p \u2264 0.05), indicating pronounced short-term toxicity. By Day 90, bacterial and actinomycete populations exhibited partial to complete recovery, with some treatments exceeding control values, suggesting metabolic adaptation and hydrocarbon utilization. In contrast, fungal populations remained consistently suppressed throughout the experiment, indicating prolonged ecological stress. No strict dose\u2013response relationship was observed, highlighting the influence of soil physicochemical properties on microbial resilience and hydrocarbon bioavailability. These findings identify microscopic fungi as the most sensitive indicators of kerosene contamination, suggesting that indigenous bacterial and actinomycete communities play a key role in natural attenuation. The results provide quantitative thresholds relevant for environmental monitoring and support the development of microbiologically informed bioremediation strategies in areas impacted by rocket launches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14020342","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]],"date-time":"2026-02-02T12:49:44Z","timestamp":1770036584000},"page":"342","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Influence of Rocket Hydrocarbon Fuel on the Activity of Soil Microbial Communities in Areas of Launch Vehicle Operation in Kazakhstan"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5979-9756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aliya","family":"Kalizhanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Information and Computational Technologies, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3875-5164","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anar","family":"Utegenova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Information and Computational Technologies, Almaty 050010, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Almaty University of Power Engineering and Telecommunications Named After Gumarbek Daukeyev, Almaty 050046, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5248-5025","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yerlan","family":"Bekeshev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Almaty University of Power Engineering and Telecommunications Named After Gumarbek Daukeyev, Almaty 050046, Kazakhstan"},{"name":"Branch Office of the Republican State Enterprise \u00abInfracos\u00bb, Almaty 050046, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1854-798X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhazira","family":"Zhumabekova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Branch Office of the Republican State Enterprise \u00abInfracos\u00bb, Almaty 050046, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9983-5857","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yelena","family":"Stepanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Branch Office of the Republican State Enterprise \u00abInfracos\u00bb, Almaty 050046, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8610-7321","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ardak","family":"Jumagaziyeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NJSC \u201cS.D. Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University\u201d, Almaty 050012, Kazakhstan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1134\/S1064229324601264","article-title":"Jet fuel as a source of soil pollution: A review","volume":"57","author":"Koroleva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eurasian Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Zhubatov, S.E., Kenesov, J., Tovasarov, B.N., Kozlovsky, A.D., and Batyrbekova, V.A. (2017). Environmental regulation system for rocket and space activities at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. MK Nauryzbaeva. Almaty, (In Russian)."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chukwuka, K.S., Alimba, C.G., Ataguba, G.A., and Jimoh, W.A. (2018). The impacts of petroleum production on terrestrial fauna and flora in the oil-producing region of Nigeria. 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