{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,5]],"date-time":"2026-02-05T19:27:01Z","timestamp":1770319621218,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":173,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770076800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Royal Society New Zealand"},{"name":"Maurice Wilkins Center for Molecular Biodiscovery"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001511","name":"Auckland Medical Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001511","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004543","name":"China Scholarship Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004543","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A Group A Streptococcus (GAS, Streptococcus pyogenes) is an exclusively human pathogen whose virulence is driven by a diverse array of surface structures, secreted toxins, and immune evasion mechanisms. Central to its pathogenicity is the M protein, a surface-anchored molecule that inhibits phagocytosis by interfering with complement deposition and binding host factors such as fibrinogen. GAS also secretes a wide range of toxins and enzymes that damage tissues and disrupt host defences. Streptolysin O and streptolysin S are potent cytolysins that lyse immune cells and contribute to tissue necrosis. Pyrogenic exotoxins (such as SpeA and SpeC) act as superantigens, triggering massive, dysregulated T cell activation and cytokine release, an underlying mechanism in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Additional factors like DNases and streptokinase facilitate bacterial spread by breaking down host tissue and counteracting neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Immune evasion is further supported by the production of enzymes that interfere with complement functions, like the cleavage of chemokines and the targeting of antibodies. Together, these virulence determinants allow GAS to cause a wide spectrum of diseases, ranging from uncomplicated pharyngitis and impetigo to invasive conditions like necrotising fasciitis and sepsis. This review provides a timely overview of the important GAS virulence factors and an update on the current vaccine landscape.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14020357","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T12:46:11Z","timestamp":1770122771000},"page":"357","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Group A Streptococcal Virulence Factors and Vaccine Development\u2014An Update"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Shunyi","family":"Fan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8365-5552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine Jia-Yun","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"},{"name":"Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9428-1215","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jacelyn Mei San","family":"Loh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"},{"name":"Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9275-5042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas","family":"Proft","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"},{"name":"Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000001095","article-title":"The reemergence of Streptococcus pyogenes in skin and soft tissue infections: A review of epidemiology, pathogenesis, and management strategies","volume":"38","author":"Bassetti","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. 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