{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T15:03:29Z","timestamp":1784127809795,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770681600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mycoplasma pneumoniae is traditionally recognized as a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia, yet growing evidence demonstrates that its clinical impact extends far beyond the respiratory tract. Increasing reports of neurologic, cardiac, hematologic, dermatologic, renal, gastrointestinal, and thrombotic complications indicate that M. pneumoniae should be viewed as a systemic pathogen capable of inducing multisystem disease. Extrapulmonary manifestations may arise through three major mechanisms: direct bacterial invasion of tissues, immune-mediated injury driven by molecular mimicry or immune complexes, and vascular or thrombotic events related to endothelial dysfunction. These processes frequently occur independently of, or temporally dissociated from, respiratory symptoms, complicating early diagnosis. The diagnostic approach remains challenging because respiratory PCR may reflect colonization, serology is delayed, and pathogen detection in sterile sites is uncommon. Consequently, diagnosis often depends on the integration of clinical features, laboratory markers, and organ-specific imaging. Management requires a combined strategy: antimicrobial therapy to reduce bacterial load, organ-targeted supportive measures, and immunomodulatory interventions such as corticosteroids, IVIG, or plasma exchange for severe immune-mediated complications. The emergence of macrolide-resistant strains further underscores the need for tailored antimicrobial strategies and close clinical monitoring. Although many extrapulmonary complications are reversible, severe forms\u2014including encephalitis, ADEM, myocarditis, Stevens\u2013Johnson syndrome, and major thromboses\u2014can lead to lasting morbidity or death. Significant knowledge gaps persist, including determinants of host susceptibility, mechanisms linking CARDS toxin to systemic inflammation, the impact of macrolide resistance on disease severity, and the absence of standardized diagnostic criteria. Advances in molecular immunology, multicenter registries, and development of targeted therapies or vaccines represent crucial next steps. Overall, the breadth and clinical relevance of extrapulmonary involvement support a paradigm shift: Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection should be regarded and managed as a systemic disease rather than a purely respiratory pathogen.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14020419","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T17:10:52Z","timestamp":1770743452000},"page":"419","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["From Respiratory Pathogen to Systemic Threat: Rethinking Mycoplasma pneumoniae Infections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2999-3707","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Bongiovanni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infectious Diseases, Ente Ospedaliero Cantonale, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Southern Switzerland, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2377","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1938.02790520033007","article-title":"An acute infection of the respiratory tract with atypical pneumonia: A disease entity probably by a filtrable virus","volume":"111","author":"Reinmann","year":"1938","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.17.4.697-728.2004","article-title":"Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen","volume":"17","author":"Waites","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. 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