{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T15:51:34Z","timestamp":1787500294779,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770768000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Science for Africa Foundation to the Developing Excellence in Leadership, Training and Science in Africa (DELTAS Africa) programme","award":["DEL-22-012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DEL-22-012"]}]},{"name":"ELMA Cholera Relief Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The October 2023 to 2024 cholera outbreak demonstrates significant challenges related to water quality and sanitation, especially in peri-urban areas with limited access to clean water. This study assesses the presence of faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli) in drinking water sources across five townships, identified as cholera transmission hotspots, two months post the cholera outbreak in the Lusaka District. A total of 169 water samples were collected from protected sources, treated piped water, and unprotected sources, including dams and shallow wells. Faecal coliforms and E. coli were detected across all source types. Among unprotected sources, 92.3% (12\/13) of samples contained \u2265100 CFU\/100 mL of both faecal coliforms and E. coli. Protected sources showed variable contamination, with 18.3% exceeding \u2265100 CFU\/100 mL for faecal coliforms and 15.4% for E. coli. Treated water sources showed the lowest contamination, with 88.5% of samples having no detectable faecal coliforms and 90.4% having no detectable E. coli. Zero-inflated negative binomial regression showed that treated water sources were associated with substantially lower faecal coliform counts compared with protected sources (PR = 0.11, 95% CI: 0.03\u20130.35), while unprotected sources exhibited higher contamination intensity (PR = 1.77, 95% CI: 0.94\u20133.31). Treated sources were significantly more likely to be structurally free of contamination, whereas unprotected sources had an extremely low probability of yielding zero counts. These findings indicate that current water safety conditions in Lusaka\u2019s cholera hotspot areas remain inadequate for preventing faecal-oral transmission.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14020420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T09:15:12Z","timestamp":1770801312000},"page":"420","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Faecal Coliforms and Escherichia coli Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in Cholera Hotspot Areas of Lusaka District, Zambia: A Cross-Sectional Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3601-0660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harriet","family":"Ng\u2019ombe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"},{"name":"Stellenbosch University Water Institute, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa"},{"name":"Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7600, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charlie C.","family":"Luchen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2657-8913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernard","family":"Phiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6338-4841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dennis","family":"Ngosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robby","family":"Kapikila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sydney","family":"Sakanya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chikondi","family":"Sakala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3309-0538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nyuma","family":"Mbewe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zambia National Public Health Institute, Stand 1186, Corner of Chaholi and Addis Ababa Roads, Rhodes Park, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fraser","family":"Liswaniso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0221-9527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roma","family":"Chilengi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zambia National Public Health Institute, Stand 1186, Corner of Chaholi and Addis Ababa Roads, Rhodes Park, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2503-9441","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduan","family":"Wilkinson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7600, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6768-8776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lenine","family":"Liebenberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7600, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1559-9485","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wesaal","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stellenbosch University Water Institute, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicholas R.","family":"Thomson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9338-5119","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Sack","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Epidemic Response and Innovation, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town 7600, South Africa"},{"name":"John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2826-3887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Bosomprah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"},{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra P.O. Box LG13, Ghana"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7850-7915","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Caroline C.","family":"Chisenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Science and Immunology Department, Centre for Infectious Disease Research in Zambia, Lusaka 10101, Zambia"},{"name":"Wellcome Sanger Institute, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1111\/tmi.12334","article-title":"Global Assessment of Exposure to Faecal Contamination through Drinking Water Based on a Systematic Review","volume":"19","author":"Bain","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Int. 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