{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T17:40:42Z","timestamp":1772818842668,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772755200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Vice Rectory of Research and Graduate Studies at the Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo","award":["RE2340221"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RE2340221"]}]},{"name":"Vice Rectory of Research and Graduate Studies at the Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo","award":["EQ2418401"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EQ2418401"]}]},{"name":"Vice Rectory of Research and Graduate Studies at the Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo","award":["FP2516810"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FP2516810"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cronobacter spp. is a pathogenic genus comprising seven species, of which C. sakazakii is particularly notable for its association with neonatal outbreaks linked to powdered infant formula. The severity of infections is associated with virulence factors (VFs) and \u03b2-lactam antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) has enabled precise strain typing through core genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST), enhancing discrimination and accuracy. This study aimed to use cgMLST (2831 genes) to genomically characterize 34 Cronobacter strains which had been isolated from powdered milk and production surfaces between 2011 and 2022. The identified strains included C. sakazakii ST1, ST4, ST13, ST31 and ST83, as well as C. malonaticus ST60. Overall, there were eight clusters of closely related strains. All strains exhibited resistance to cephalothin, 18 were resistant to ceftazidime and 11 to ampicillin. Various resistance genes (blaCSA, blaCMA, fos, qacJ, marA, AcrAB-TolC, and mcr-9.1) and virulence genes (cpa, nanAKT, fic, relB, fliC) were detected, with some genes being exclusive to C. sakazakii. All strains carried plasmids and mobile genetic elements. The multidrug resistance and presence of virulence genes in these isolates highlight the significant risk that C. sakazakii-contaminated powdered dairy products pose to public health, underscoring the need to adopt proper hygienic manufacturing practices and effectively implement HACCP in their production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14030593","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T11:05:44Z","timestamp":1772795144000},"page":"593","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genotypic and Phenotypic Characterization of Cronobacter spp. Strains Isolated from Powdered Milk Formulas and Dairy Production Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4835-9747","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julio","family":"Parra-Flores","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nutrition and Public Health, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y de los Alimentos, Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo, Chill\u00e1n 3800708, Chile"},{"name":"Laboratorio de Investigaci\u00f3n Celular y Molecular en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y de los Alimentos, Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo, Chill\u00e1n 3800708, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Beatriz","family":"Daza-Prieto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety, 1220 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Miriam","family":"Troncoso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Instituto Profesional Duoc UC, Santiago 8240000, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Guillermo","family":"Figueroa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology and Probiotics Laboratory, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 7830490, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria I.","family":"Reyes-Fuentes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratorio de Investigaci\u00f3n Celular y Molecular en Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud y de los Alimentos, Universidad del B\u00edo-B\u00edo, Chill\u00e1n 3800708, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7625-9818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ondrej","family":"Holy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Care Sciences, Faculty of Humanities, Tomas Bata University in Zl\u00edn, 76001 Zl\u00edn, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ariadnna","family":"Cruz-C\u00f3rdova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunochemistry Research Laboratory, Hospital Infantil de M\u00e9xico Federico G\u00f3mez, Mexico City 06720, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9940-3333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Werner","family":"Ruppitsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6709-0712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephen","family":"Forsythe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FoodMicrobe.com Ltd., Keyworth, Nottinghamshire NG12 5GY, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.65577-0","article-title":"Cronobacter gen. nov., a new genus to accommodate the biogroups of Enterobacter sakazakii, and proposal of Cronobacter sakazakii gen. nov.comb. nov., C. malonaticus sp. nov., C. turicensis sp. nov., C. muytjensii sp. nov., C. dublinensis sp. nov., Cronobacter genomospecies 1, and of three subspecies, C. dublinensis sp. nov.subsp. dublinensis subsp. nov., C. dublinensis sp. nov.subsp. lausannensis subsp. nov., and C. dublinensis sp. nov.subsp. lactaridi subsp. nov","volume":"58","author":"Iversen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. 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