{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T21:08:40Z","timestamp":1790284120617,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early life represents a critical developmental programming window during which nutrition and microbial exposures shape long-term physiological function. Feeding mode is a major determinant of infant gut microbiota assembly and metabolic activity. This narrative review synthesizes current evidence comparing breastfeeding (BF) and formula feeding in relation to microbial composition, functional capacity, and immune programming during the preweaning and early postweaning periods. BF may support a relatively stable, bifidobacteria-dominated microbiota enriched in pathways involved in carbohydrate utilization, vitamin biosynthesis, and immune modulation. Human milk oligosaccharides, secretory IgA, lactoferrin, and milk-associated microbes collectively guide microbial succession, enhance barrier integrity, and support immune tolerance. In contrast, formula-fed infants typically exhibit greater microbial diversity, earlier transition toward adult-like profiles, and increased abundance of facultative anaerobes, alongside the enrichment of pathways related to bile acid and amino acid metabolism. Microbiota patterns in formula-fed infants are further influenced by formula composition, including protein load, lipid structure, and supplementation with prebiotics, probiotics, and human milk oligosaccharide analogues. Although advances in formula design have reduced compositional gaps, functional differences in microbial stability and immune programming persist. Recognizing early infancy as a sensitive programming window underscores the need for microbiome-informed nutritional strategies and longitudinal, multi-omics research to clarify causal mechanisms and optimize early-life interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14030719","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T13:53:34Z","timestamp":1774274014000},"page":"719","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Seeding the Future: How Feeding Mode Shapes the Infant Gut Microbiota"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8551-3053","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Felicia","family":"Trofin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Spiridon County Clinical Emergency Hospital Iasi, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aida Corina","family":"Badescu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Parascheva Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, 700116 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2592-3982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luminita Smaranda","family":"Iancu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"National Institute of Public Health\u2014Iasi Regional Center for Public Health, 700465 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0126-0640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena Roxana","family":"Buzila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Parascheva Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, 700116 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8657-378X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dana-Teodora","family":"Anton-P\u0103duraru","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"\u201dSf. Maria\u201d Children Emergency Hospital, 700309 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-6258-7728","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina Mihaela","family":"Sima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Parascheva Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, 700116 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oana-Raluca","family":"Temneanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"\u201dSf. Maria\u201d Children Emergency Hospital, 700309 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anca","family":"Matei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Spiridon County Clinical Emergency Hospital Iasi, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9552-8558","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefana Catalina","family":"Bilha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Spiridon County Clinical Emergency Hospital Iasi, 700111 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioana Alexandra","family":"Benea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Doctoral School, \u201cOvidius\u201d University, 900470 Constanta, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7720-4499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olivia Simona","family":"Dorneanu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania"},{"name":"Sf. Parascheva Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases, 700116 Iasi, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1159\/000095010","article-title":"Growth of Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Infants","volume":"Volume 58","author":"Ziegler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 58th Nestl\u00e9 Nutrition Workshop, Pediatric Program, Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e827","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-3552","article-title":"Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk","volume":"129","author":"Eidelman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jand.2014.12.014","article-title":"Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Promoting and Supporting Breastfeeding","volume":"115","author":"Lessen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. 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