{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T04:27:03Z","timestamp":1789705623620,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":172,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779840000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pregnancy represents a critical eco-biological window during which maternal physiology integrates environmental exposures, lifestyle factors, and interconnected microbial ecosystems to shape fetal development and long-term health. From a One Health perspective, defined here as the interconnection between maternal health, environmental determinants, and microbial ecosystems across generations, the maternal microbiome functions as a dynamic interface linking the external environment to the intrauterine milieu, translating ecological signals into immunological, metabolic, and neuroendocrine pathways that influence placental function and developmental programming. Across gut, vaginal, oral, and mammary niches, maternal microbial communities operate as an integrated network regulating systemic inflammation, metabolic homeostasis, and the production of bioactive metabolites, including short-chain fatty acids, bile acids, and tryptophan derivatives. This review proposes an integrated systems framework in which pregnancy is viewed as a transient ecological system shaped by ten interconnected maternal determinants, encompassing microbial niches, nutrition, lifestyle factors, medical interventions, mode of delivery, and postnatal microbial transmission, that converge on shared microbiome-mediated signaling pathways affecting fetal and neonatal immune, metabolic, and neurodevelopmental trajectories. Broader macro-environmental drivers, including biodiversity loss, urbanization, pollution, and industrialized lifestyles, are considered as upstream modulators of maternal microbial ecology within a One Health context. A systems model is presented to illustrate how environmental inputs are biologically transduced through maternal microbial networks to influence placental function, fetal development, and early-life health trajectories. Framing pregnancy as an integrated eco-biological continuum highlights the maternal microbiome as a central hub of intergenerational health and may support microbiome-informed preventive strategies and public health approaches aimed at reducing the burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) of early-life origin.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14061214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T14:36:56Z","timestamp":1779892616000},"page":"1214","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Maternal Microbiome in Fetal Programming: A One Health Perspective on Translational Implications for Early-Life Health"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2115-1701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariarosaria","family":"Matera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Emergencies, Misericordia Hospital, 58100 Grosseto, Italy"},{"name":"Italy Microbiota International Clinical Society (MICS), 10153 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3021-6627","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Biagioli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-2326-2328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ilaria","family":"Cavecchia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiomic Department, Koelliker Hospital, 10134 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Illiceto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy, Department of Pediatrics, Santo Spirito Hospital, 65125 Pescara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Pennazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DeaLuce Obstetric\/Nutritional Practice, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matilde","family":"Morandin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiomic Department, Koelliker Hospital, 10134 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2380-4741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Beatrice","family":"Lenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neonatology and NICU, Villa Sofia-Cervello Hospital, 90146 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0590-6664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Elisabetta","family":"Baldassarre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine, Neonatology and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Aldo Moro University, 70121 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4000-6004","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maurizio","family":"Mennini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Mental Health and Sensory Organs (NESMOS), Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"470","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.07.008","article-title":"Host Remodeling of the Gut Microbiome and Metabolic Changes during Pregnancy","volume":"150","author":"Koren","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nuriel-Ohayon, M., Neuman, H., and Koren, O. (2016). Microbial Changes during Pregnancy, Birth, and Infancy. Front. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.01031"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2024.113627","article-title":"The gut-reproductive axis: Bridging microbiota balances to reproductive health and fetal development","volume":"144","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Destoumieux-Garz\u00f3n, D., Mavingui, P., Boetsch, G., Boissier, J., Darriet, F., Duboz, P., Fritsch, C., Giraudoux, P., Le Roux, F., and Morand, S. (2018). The One Health Concept: 10\u2009Years Old and a Long Road Ahead. Front. Vet. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00014"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1600266","article-title":"The Human Intestinal Microbiome in Health and Disease","volume":"375","author":"Lynch","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suprunowicz, M., Tomaszek, N., Urbaniak, A., Zackiewicz, K., Modzelewski, S., and Waszkiewicz, N. (2024). Between Dysbiosis, Maternal Immune Activation and Autism: Is There a Common Pathway?. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16040549"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shimizu, Y., Sakata-Haga, H., Saikawa, Y., and Hatta, T. (2023). Influence of Immune System Abnormalities Caused by Maternal Immune Activation in the Postnatal Period. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12050741"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-024-01023-8","article-title":"The fetal programming effect of maternal immune activation (MIA) on the offspring\u2019s immune system","volume":"46","author":"Hofsink","year":"2024","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., Matera, M., Ramenghi, L.A., Falsaperla, R., and Striano, P. (2025). Microbiome and Pregnancy Dysbiosis: A Narrative Review on Offspring Health. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17061033"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2023.11.1223","article-title":"Corrigendum to \u2018The histologic fetal inflammatory response and neonatal outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"230","author":"Imrei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2010.02.003","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Clinical Chorioamnionitis","volume":"37","author":"Tita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1097\/AOG.0000000000004377","article-title":"Chorioamnionitis and Risk for Maternal and Neonatal Sepsis","volume":"137","author":"Beck","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.42","article-title":"Gut microbiota, metabolites and host immunity","volume":"16","author":"Rooks","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.05.003","article-title":"Gut Microbiota Regulation of Tryptophan Metabolism in Health and Disease","volume":"23","author":"Agus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140066","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0066","article-title":"The placenta: A multifaceted, transient organ","volume":"370","author":"Burton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morys, J., Ma\u0142ecki, A., and Nowacka-Chmielewska, M. (2024). Stress and the gut-brain axis: An inflammatory perspective. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2024.1415567"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2023.01.018","article-title":"Mother-to-infant microbiota transmission and infant microbiota development across multiple body sites","volume":"31","author":"Bogaert","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2018.06.005","article-title":"Mother-to-Infant Microbial Transmission from Different Body Sites Shapes the Developing Infant Gut Microbiome","volume":"24","author":"Ferretti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad9378","article-title":"How colonization by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system","volume":"352","author":"Gensollen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2017.0378","article-title":"Association Between Breast Milk Bacterial Communities and Establishment and Development of the Infant Gut Microbiome","volume":"171","author":"Pannaraj","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAMA Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0761-3","article-title":"Viable bacterial colonization is highly limited in the human intestine in utero","volume":"26","author":"Rackaityte","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad2571","article-title":"The maternal microbiota drives early postnatal innate immune development","volume":"351","author":"Fuhrer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0708473","article-title":"Effect of In Utero and Early-Life Conditions on Adult Health and Disease","volume":"359","author":"Gluckman","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588S","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2004.10719428","article-title":"The Developmental Origins of Adult Disease","volume":"23","author":"Barker","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307ra152","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aab2271","article-title":"Early infancy microbial and metabolic alterations affect risk of childhood asthma","volume":"7","author":"Arrieta","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4142","article-title":"The microbiome in early life: Implications for health outcomes","volume":"22","author":"Tamburini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20172437","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2017-2437","article-title":"The Role of the Microbiome in the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease","volume":"141","author":"Stiemsma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k2179","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k2179","article-title":"Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health","volume":"361","author":"Valdes","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2214","DOI":"10.2337\/db16-0278","article-title":"Connections Between the Gut Microbiome and Metabolic Hormones in Early Pregnancy in Overweight and Obese Women","volume":"65","author":"Barrett","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"237ra65","article-title":"The Placenta Harbors a Unique Microbiome","volume":"6","author":"Aagaard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.13331","article-title":"Influence of maternal microbiota during pregnancy on infant immunity","volume":"198","author":"Nyangahu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Funkhouser, L.J., and Bordenstein, S.R. (2013). Mom Knows Best: The Universality of Maternal Microbial Transmission. PLoS Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001631"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2022.102173","article-title":"Mother\u2013infant transmission of human microbiota","volume":"69","author":"Browne","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11971","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002601107","article-title":"Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns","volume":"107","author":"Costello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1560-1","article-title":"Stunted microbiota and opportunistic pathogen colonization in caesarean-section birth","volume":"574","author":"Shao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"The human milk microbiota: Origin and potential roles in health and disease","volume":"69","author":"Langa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., and Striano, P. (2025). Human Milk Oligosaccharides and Gut Microbes in Host Brain Development and Health. The Oxford Handbook of the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190931544.013.0018"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.08.047","article-title":"Maternal Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Cesarean-Born Infants Rapidly Restores Normal Gut Microbial Development: A Proof-of-Concept Study","volume":"183","author":"Korpela","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23129","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23129","article-title":"Human gut colonisation may be initiated in utero by distinct microbial communities in the placenta and amniotic fluid","volume":"6","author":"Collado","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-018-0575-4","article-title":"Lack of detection of a human placenta microbiome in samples from preterm and term deliveries","volume":"6","author":"Leiby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1451-5","article-title":"Author Correction: Human placenta has no microbiome but can contain potential pathogens","volume":"572","author":"Lager","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"735","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-023-00874-w","article-title":"Early-life interactions between the microbiota and immune system: Impact on immune system development and atopic disease","volume":"23","author":"Donald","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, X., Shi, Z., Jiang, L., and Zhang, S. (2024). Maternal gut microbiota in the health of mothers and offspring: From the perspective of immunology. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1362784"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12726","article-title":"Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation","volume":"504","author":"Arpaia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw8429","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw8429","article-title":"Maternal gut microbiota in pregnancy influences offspring metabolic phenotype in mice","volume":"367","author":"Kimura","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-14552-1","article-title":"Maternal carriage of Prevotella during pregnancy associates with protection against food allergy in the offspring","volume":"11","author":"Vuillermin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2013.08.003","article-title":"Tryptophan Catabolites from Microbiota Engage Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and Balance Mucosal Reactivity via Interleukin-22","volume":"39","author":"Zelante","year":"2013","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2014.06.014","article-title":"Symbiotic Bacterial Metabolites Regulate Gastrointestinal Barrier Function via the Xenobiotic Sensor PXR and Toll-like Receptor 4","volume":"41","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2014","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2014.12.002","article-title":"The infant microbiome development: Mom matters","volume":"21","author":"Mueller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.02.035","article-title":"Infant microbes and metabolites point to childhood neurodevelopmental disorders","volume":"187","author":"Ahrens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-025-01230-z","article-title":"A western dietary pattern during pregnancy is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood and adolescence","volume":"7","author":"Horner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1111\/aogs.14773","article-title":"The maternal microbiome in pregnancy, delivery, and early-stage development of neonatal microbiome after cesarean section: A prospective longitudinal study","volume":"103","author":"Foessleitner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-021-01005-7","article-title":"Maternal and early life exposures and their potential to influence development of the microbiome","volume":"14","author":"Bolte","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70013","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.70013","article-title":"Regulatory T-Cells During Pregnancy Relate to Women\u2019s Own Childhood History of Microbial Exposure","volume":"37","author":"Fox","year":"2025","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Husso, A., Pessa-Morikawa, T., Koistinen, V.M., K\u00e4rkk\u00e4inen, O., Kwon, H.N., Lahti, L., Iivanainen, A., Hanhineva, K., and Niku, M. (2023). Impacts of maternal microbiota and microbial metabolites on fetal intestine, brain, and placenta. BMC Biol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-023-01709-9"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-020-0372-6","article-title":"Tracking placental development in health and disease","volume":"16","author":"Aplin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1220030","article-title":"Chemokine Gene Silencing in Decidual Stromal Cells Limits T Cell Access to the Maternal-Fetal Interface","volume":"336","author":"Nancy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.64","article-title":"The unique immunological and microbial aspects of pregnancy","volume":"17","author":"Mor","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3361","article-title":"Mechanisms of T cell tolerance towards the allogeneic fetus","volume":"13","author":"Erlebacher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3131","article-title":"Immune mechanisms at the maternal-fetal interface: Perspectives and challenges","volume":"16","author":"PrabhuDas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S120","DOI":"10.2337\/dc07-s203","article-title":"The Human Placenta in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"30","author":"Desoye","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"292","article-title":"Placental regulation of fetal nutrient supply","volume":"16","author":"Koletzko","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2745-3","article-title":"The maternal microbiome modulates fetal neurodevelopment in mice","volume":"586","author":"Vuong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00488-6","article-title":"Local and systemic mechanisms linking periodontal disease and inflammatory comorbidities","volume":"21","author":"Hajishengallis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13290","article-title":"Treatment of stage I\u2013III periodontitis\u2014The EFP S3 level clinical practice guideline","volume":"47","author":"Sanz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"S181","article-title":"Epidemiology of association between maternal periodontal disease and adverse pregnancy outcomes\u2014Systematic review","volume":"84","author":"Ide","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/prd.12296","article-title":"The role of the microbiota in periodontal disease","volume":"83","author":"Curtis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Periodontol. 2000"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2016.03.002","article-title":"Probiotics for managing caries and periodontitis: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"48","author":"Gruner","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dent."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beattie, R.E. (2024). Probiotics for oral health: A critical evaluation of bacterial strains. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1430810"},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"e23282","article-title":"Effect of Probiotic Streptococcus salivarius K12 and M18 Lozenges on the Cariogram Parameters of Patients with High Caries Risk: A Randomised Control Trial","volume":"14","author":"Poorni","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babina, K., Salikhova, D., Makeeva, I., Zaytsev, A., Sokhova, I., Musaeva, S., Polyakova, M., and Novozhilova, N. (2024). A Three-Month Probiotic (the Streptococcus salivarius M18 Strain) Supplementation Decreases Gingival Bleeding and Plaque Accumulation: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Dent. J., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/dj12070222"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Z., Chen, Z., and Ma, G. (2025). Dynamic changes in the pregnancy microbiome and their role in preterm birth. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1683610"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van de Wijgert, J.H.H.M., Borgdorff, H., Verhelst, R., Crucitti, T., Francis, S., Verstraelen, H., and Jespers, V. (2014). The Vaginal Microbiota: What Have We Learned after a Decade of Molecular Characterization?. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0105998"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-016-0223-9","article-title":"The interaction between vaginal microbiota, cervical length, and vaginal progesterone treatment for preterm birth risk","volume":"5","author":"Kindinger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-019-0450-2","article-title":"The vaginal microbiome and preterm birth","volume":"25","author":"Fettweis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s10815-015-0614-z","article-title":"Endometrial microbiome at the time of embryo transfer: Next-generation sequencing of the 16S ribosomal subunit","volume":"33","author":"Franasiak","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Assist. Reprod. Genet."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2016.09.075","article-title":"Evidence that the endometrial microbiota has an effect on implantation success or failure","volume":"215","author":"Moreno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-micro-092611-150157","article-title":"Vaginal Microbiome: Rethinking Health and Disease","volume":"66","author":"Ma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2022.0091","article-title":"Impact of Lactobacillus crispatus-containing oral and vaginal probiotics on vaginal health: A randomised double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial","volume":"14","author":"Smidt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/s13668-023-00453-4","article-title":"Diet Gut Microbiota Axis in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review of Recent Evidence","volume":"12","author":"Kunasegaran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Nutr. Rep."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwartz, L.T., Ladouceur, J.G., Russell, M.M., Xie, S.Y.L., Bu, S., Kerver, J.M., and Comstock, S.S. (2025). The Relationship Between Fiber Intake and Gut Bacterial Diversity and Composition During the Third Trimester of Pregnancy. Nutrients, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu17050773"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gpeds.2025.100301","article-title":"How maternal diet; probiotics; prebiotics, and postbiotics during pregnancy influence neurodevelopment in newborns","volume":"14","author":"Biagioli","year":"2025","journal-title":"Glob. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsu, C.-N., Chen, C.-K., Hou, C.-Y., Chen, Y.-W., Chang-Chien, G.-P., Lin, S.-F., and Tain, Y.-L. (2025). Impact of Maternal High-Fat Diet on Offspring Cardiovascular\u2013Kidney\u2013Metabolic Health: Spotlight on Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox14091136"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harmanc\u0131o\u011flu, B., and Kabaran, S. (2023). Maternal high fat diets: Impacts on offspring obesity and epigenetic hypothalamic programming. Front. Genet., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2023.1158089"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yao, L., Zhou, X., Jiang, X., Chen, H., Li, Y., Xiong, X., Tang, Y., Zhang, H., and Qiao, P. (2025). High-fat diet promotes gestational diabetes mellitus through modulating gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1480446"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1762","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.06.001","article-title":"Microbial Reconstitution Reverses Maternal Diet-Induced Social and Synaptic Deficits in Offspring","volume":"165","author":"Buffington","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miko, E., Csaszar, A., Bodis, J., and Kovacs, K. (2022). The Maternal\u2013Fetal Gut Microbiota Axis: Physiological Changes, Dietary Influence, and Modulation Possibilities. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12030424"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Su\u00e1rez-Mart\u00ednez, C., Santaella-Pascual, M., Yag\u00fce-Guirao, G., and Mart\u00ednez-Graci\u00e1, C. (2023). Infant gut microbiota colonization: Influence of prenatal and postnatal factors, focusing on diet. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1236254"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, Y.P., Bernardi, A., and Frozza, R.L. (2020). The Role of Short-Chain Fatty Acids From Gut Microbiota in Gut-Brain Communication. Front. Endocrinol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2020.00025"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2018.03.015","article-title":"Neurotransmitter modulation by the gut microbiota","volume":"1693","author":"Strandwitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0207524","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.02075-24","article-title":"From microbes to mind: Germ-free models in neuropsychiatric research","volume":"15","author":"Cuesta","year":"2024","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(90)90383-S","article-title":"Maternal stress increases fetal brain and neonatal cerebral cortex 5-hydroxytryptamine synthesis in rats: A possible mechanism by which stress influences brain development","volume":"35","author":"Peters","year":"1990","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-8760(00)00100-8","article-title":"Chronic stress in pregnant rats: Effects on growth rate, anxiety and memory capabilities of the offspring","volume":"37","author":"Lordi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., Volpedo, G., Riva, A., Mainardi, P., and Striano, P. (2024). From Birth to Weaning: A Window of Opportunity for Microbiota. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16020272"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-68599-x","article-title":"Effect of different delivery modes on intestinal microbiota and immune function of neonates","volume":"14","author":"Lai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuab008","article-title":"Association Between the Mode of Delivery and Infant Gut Microbiota Composition Up to 6 Months of Age: A Systematic Literature Review Considering the Role of Breastfeeding","volume":"80","author":"Princisval","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e005671","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjgh-2021-005671","article-title":"Trends and projections of caesarean section rates: Global and regional estimates","volume":"6","author":"Betran","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(18)31930-5","article-title":"Short-term and long-term effects of caesarean section on the health of women and children","volume":"392","author":"Sandall","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u0142abuszewska-J\u00f3\u017awiak, A., Szyma\u0144ski, J.K., Ciebiera, M., Sarecka-Hujar, B., and Jakiel, G. (2020). Pediatrics Consequences of Caesarean Section\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17218031"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, W., Pu, L., Qian, X., Pan, J., Cheng, R., and Sun, P. (2025). Exercise-induced modulation of gut microbiota in individuals with obesity and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1671975"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2025.01.224","article-title":"Exercise, the Gut Microbiome and Gastrointestinal Diseases: Therapeutic Impact and Molecular Mechanisms","volume":"169","author":"Hawley","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Varghese, S., Rao, S., Khattak, A., Zamir, F., and Chaari, A. (2024). Physical Exercise and the Gut Microbiome: A Bidirectional Relationship Influencing Health and Performance. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16213663"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-016-0176-0","article-title":"Physical activity and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and dose\u2013response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies","volume":"31","author":"Aune","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2018-099355","article-title":"Prenatal exercise for the prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Davenport","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"001","DOI":"10.20463\/pan.2023.0011","article-title":"Prenatal physical activity and the gut microbiota of pregnant women: Results from a preliminary investigation","volume":"27","author":"Santarossa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Act. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tye, K.D., Ran, X., and Liu, X. (2025). Moderate physical activity during late pregnancy enhances gut microbial network stability in pregnant women. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1731350"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saponaro, F., Bertolini, A., Baragatti, R., Galfo, L., Chiellini, G., Saba, A., and D\u2019Urso, G. (2024). Myokines and Microbiota: New Perspectives in the Endocrine Muscle\u2013Gut Axis. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16234032"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1249\/JES.0000000000000183","article-title":"Exercise and the Gut Microbiome: A Review of the Evidence, Potential Mechanisms, and Implications for Human Health","volume":"47","author":"Mailing","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1249\/MSS.0000000000001495","article-title":"Exercise Alters Gut Microbiota Composition and Function in Lean and Obese Humans","volume":"50","author":"Allen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sajdel-Sulkowska, E.M. (2023). The Impact of Maternal Gut Microbiota during Pregnancy on Fetal Gut\u2013Brain Axis Development and Life-Long Health Outcomes. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202307.0759.v1"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0182-5","article-title":"The maternal vaginal microbiome partially mediates the effects of prenatal stress on offspring gut and hypothalamus","volume":"21","author":"Howard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jahnke, J.R., Roach, J., Azcarate-Peril, M.A., and Thompson, A.L. (2021). Maternal precarity and HPA axis functioning shape infant gut microbiota and HPA axis development in humans. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251782"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusch, J.A., Layden, B.T., and Dugas, L.R. (2023). Signalling cognition: The gut microbiota and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1130689"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, W., Ao, H., and Peng, C. (2018). Gut Microbiota, Short-Chain Fatty Acids, and Herbal Medicines. Front. Pharmacol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.01354"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-14177-z","article-title":"Impact of commonly used drugs on the composition and metabolic function of the gut microbiota","volume":"11","author":"Vila","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25979","article-title":"Extensive impact of non-antibiotic drugs on human gut bacteria","volume":"555","author":"Maier","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1897210","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2021.1897210","article-title":"Maternal exposures and the infant gut microbiome: A systematic review with meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Grech","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1111\/jmwh.13245","article-title":"Impact of Intrapartum Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Group B Streptococcus on the Term Infant Gut Microbiome: A State of the Science Review","volume":"66","author":"Garcia","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Midwifery Women\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-023-01732-6","article-title":"Early life exposure of infants to benzylpenicillin and gentamicin is associated with a persistent amplification of the gut resistome","volume":"12","author":"Patangia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaa155","article-title":"Vertical Transmission of Gut Microbiome and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Infants Exposed to Antibiotics at Birth","volume":"224","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinninella, E., Raoul, P., Cintoni, M., Franceschi, F., Miggiano, G.A.D., Gasbarrini, A., and Mele, M.C. (2019). What is the Healthy Gut Microbiota Composition? A Changing Ecosystem across Age, Environment, Diet, and Diseases. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7010014"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matera, M., Biagioli, V., Leo, S., and Drago, L. (2026). Probiotics and Antibiotics: From Empirical Practice to a Biological Rationale for Targeted Choice During Antibiotic Therapy. Microorganisms, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14040763"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Pierro, F., Campedelli, I., De Marta, P., Fracchetti, F., Del Casale, A., Cavecchia, I., Matera, M., Cazzaniga, M., Bertuccioli, A., and Guasti, L. (2023). Bifidobacterium breve PRL2020: Antibiotic-Resistant Profile and Genomic Detection of Antibiotic Resistance Determinants. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11071649"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y.-M., Zhang, M.-Y., Wu, Y.-Y., Zhang, L., and Zhang, Y.-X. (2025). Survival and Morphological Changes of Clostridium butyricum Spores Co-Exposed to Antibiotics and Simulated Gastrointestinal Fluids: Implications for Antibiotic Stewardship. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms13061347"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abreu, A.T., Fr\u00edas, R.V., Marzet, C.B., Stefanolo, J.P., Mej\u00eda, A.C., Fern\u00e1ndez, L.B., Laudanno, O., Rosa, D., Serrano, M.C.C., and C\u00e1rdenas, K. (2025). Effectiveness of Bacillus clausii (O\/C, N\/R, SIN, T) in the Prevention of Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea and Gastrointestinal Symptoms: A Systematic Review. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14050439"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smolinska, S., Popescu, F.-D., and Zemelka-Wiacek, M. (2025). A Review of the Influence of Prebiotics, Probiotics, Synbiotics, and Postbiotics on the Human Gut Microbiome and Intestinal Integrity. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14113673"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"544","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.112.037382","article-title":"The human milk microbiome changes over lactation and is shaped by maternal weight and mode of delivery","volume":"96","author":"Collado","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_128","first-page":"CD003519","article-title":"Immediate or early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants","volume":"2025","author":"Moore","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biagioli, V., Matera, M., Cavecchia, I., Illiceto, M., Pennazzi, L., Luongo, G., Lugli, S., and Striano, P. (2026). Beyond breastfeeding: A One Health Decalogue for nurturing the infant microbiota. Front. Nutr., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2026.1784544"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2023.09.015","article-title":"Human Milk Bioactive Components and Child Growth and Body Composition in the First 2 Years: A Systematic Review","volume":"15","author":"Brockway","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dombrowska-Pali, A., Wiktorczyk-Kapischke, N., Chrustek, A., Olszewska-S\u0142onina, D., Gospodarek-Komkowska, E., and Socha, M.W. (2024). Human Milk Microbiome\u2014A Review of Scientific Reports. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16101420"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pedneo.2022.09.017","article-title":"Human milk oligosaccharides as prebiotics","volume":"64","author":"Okburan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neonatol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Slater, A.S., Hickey, R.M., and Davey, G.P. (2025). Interactions of human milk oligosaccharides with the immune system. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1523829"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pan, R., Guo, M., Chen, Y., Lin, G., Tian, P., Wang, L., Zhao, J., Chen, W., and Wang, G. (2024). Dynamics of the Gut Microbiota and Faecal and Serum Metabolomes during Pregnancy\u2014A Longitudinal Study. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16040483"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-023-00864-2","article-title":"The maternal gut microbiome in pregnancy: Implications for the developing immune system","volume":"21","author":"Koren","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadu8270","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adu8270","article-title":"Pregnancy as an opportunity to explore brain-immune connections in mental health","volume":"11","author":"Gumusoglu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1152\/physiolgenomics.00106.2024","article-title":"Pregnancy-specific shifts in the maternal microbiome and metabolome in the BPH\/5 mouse model of superimposed preeclampsia","volume":"57","author":"Beckers","year":"2025","journal-title":"Physiol. Genom."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadk1887","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adk1887","article-title":"The maternal microbiome promotes placental development in mice","volume":"9","author":"Pronovost","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basak, S., Mallick, R., Sree, B.N., and Duttaroy, A. (2024). Placental Epigenome Impacts Fetal Development: Effects of Maternal Nutrients and Gut Microbiota. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202405.0214.v1"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-018-0204-z","article-title":"Oral microbiome development during childhood: An ecological succession influenced by postnatal factors and associated with tooth decay","volume":"12","author":"Dzidic","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4680","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1002611107","article-title":"Vaginal microbiome of reproductive-age women","volume":"108","author":"Ravel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-956773","article-title":"The Role of Inflammation and Infection in Preterm Birth","volume":"25","author":"Romero","year":"2007","journal-title":"Semin. Reprod. Med."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1251816","article-title":"Preterm labor: One syndrome, many causes","volume":"345","author":"Romero","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"aan2946","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.aan2946","article-title":"An immune clock of human pregnancy","volume":"2","author":"Aghaeepour","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2015.22","article-title":"An imbalance between innate and adaptive immune cells at the maternal\u2013fetal interface occurs prior to endotoxin-induced preterm birth","volume":"13","author":"Romero","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van de Wijgert, J.H.H.M. (2017). The vaginal microbiome and sexually transmitted infections are interlinked: Consequences for treatment and prevention. PLoS Med., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1002478"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerede, A., Nikolettos, K., Vavoulidis, E., Margioula-Siarkou, C., Petousis, S., Giourga, M., Fotinopoulos, P., Salagianni, M., Stavros, S., and Dinas, K. (2024). Vaginal Microbiome and Pregnancy Complications: A Review. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202406.0233.v1"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gullo, G., Satullo, M., Billone, V., De Paola, L., Petousis, S., Kotlik, Y., Margioula-Siarkou, C., Perino, A., and Cucinella, G. (2025). The Role of the Genital Tract Microbiome in Human Fertility: A Literature Review. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14092923"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2017.75","article-title":"Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (ISAPP) consensus statement on the definition and scope of prebiotics","volume":"14","author":"Gibson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010529108","article-title":"Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior","volume":"108","author":"Heijtz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2351503","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2024.2351503","article-title":"Microbiota transplantation in restoring cesarean-related infant dysbiosis: A new frontier","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpe.13279","article-title":"Immediate versus early non-occlusal loading of dental implants placed flapless in partially edentulous patients: A 10-year randomized clinical trial","volume":"47","author":"Merli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0058524","DOI":"10.1128\/msystems.00585-24","article-title":"Impact of urbanization on gut microbiome mosaics across geographic and dietary contexts","volume":"9","author":"Vinogradova","year":"2024","journal-title":"mSystems"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2483783","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2025.2483783","article-title":"Maternal consumption of urbanized diet compromises early-life health in association with gut microbiota","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earlhumdev.2019.05.020","article-title":"The transplacental passage of commonly used intrapartum antibiotics and its impact on the newborn management: A narrative review","volume":"135","author":"Fell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Early Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coemr.2020.09.003","article-title":"Interactions between environmental exposures and the microbiome: Implications for fetal programming","volume":"13","author":"Banerjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocr. Metab. Res."},{"key":"ref_157","first-page":"e55607","article-title":"Rural Versus Urban Mothers\u2019 Microbiome Difference and Its Effect on Neonates: A Systematic Review","volume":"16","author":"Anumula","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1002\/wer.1404","article-title":"Fate of environmental pollutants: A review","volume":"92","author":"Aryal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, W., Xiong, X., Tian, Z., Li, L., and Huang, Y. (2026). Environmental pollutants and the gut microbiota: Mechanistic links from exposure to systemic disease. Front. Microbiol., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2026.1737229"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manisalidis, I., Stavropoulou, E., Stavropoulos, A., and Bezirtzoglou, E. (2020). Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2020.00014"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2018.04.130","article-title":"Inhalational exposure to particulate matter air pollution alters the composition of the gut microbiome","volume":"240","author":"Mutlu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1007\/s10123-019-00057-5","article-title":"House dust microbiome and human health risks","volume":"22","author":"Shan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.10.015","article-title":"Household environmental exposures during gestation and birth outcomes: A cross-sectional study in Shanghai, China","volume":"615","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5452","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-09336-0","article-title":"Environmental induced transgenerational inheritance impacts systems epigenetics in disease etiology","volume":"12","author":"Beck","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.108136","article-title":"Urbanization associates with restricted gut microbiome diversity and delayed maturation in infants","volume":"26","author":"Morandini","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2024.12.006","article-title":"Impact of ultra-processed food consumption during pregnancy on maternal and child health outcomes: A comprehensive narrative review of the past five years","volume":"65","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(25)01565-X","article-title":"Ultra-processed foods and human health: The main thesis and the evidence","volume":"406","author":"Monteiro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxlet.2025.111769","article-title":"Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health: Mechanistic insights and exposure pathways","volume":"414","author":"Rehman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxicol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0753-3","article-title":"Trophoblast organoids as a model for maternal\u2013fetal interactions during human placentation","volume":"564","author":"Turco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rackaityte, E., and Halkias, J. (2020). Mechanisms of Fetal T Cell Tolerance and Immune Regulation. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00588"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-020-00763-1","article-title":"Large-scale association analyses identify host factors influencing human gut microbiome composition","volume":"53","author":"Kurilshikov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-017-0282-6","article-title":"Maternal inheritance of bifidobacterial communities and bifidophages in infants through vertical transmission","volume":"5","author":"Duranti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microbiome"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1214\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T04:24:57Z","timestamp":1780633497000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1214"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]},"references-count":172,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms14061214"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms14061214","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]]}}}