{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T11:55:37Z","timestamp":1785412537750,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":124,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780617600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008771","name":"Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N-1543081-2022-26-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N-1543081-2022-26-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008771","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["N-1543081-2022-26-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N-1543081-2022-26-01"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04sbe6g90","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ticks are important arthropod vectors that transmit various pathogens to humans, livestock, and wildlife, thereby contributing significantly to the global burden of vector-borne diseases. The tick microbiome, consisting of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other microorganisms, plays a crucial role in pathogen transmission dynamics and the emergence of new zoonotic diseases. This review examines the characteristics of tick vectors, the composition and dynamics of tick-associated microbiomes, and their implications for zoonotic disease transmission. We analyze current knowledge of tick-borne pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Rickettsia species, Anaplasma species, and Coxiella species, and highlight the potential for microbiome constituents to serve as reservoirs for emerging pathogens. The complex interactions between tick hosts, their microbiomes, and vertebrate hosts create opportunities for pathogen evolution and interspecies transmission. Recent advances in molecular techniques have revealed previously unknown microbial diversity within tick populations, suggesting that many potential zoonotic pathogens remain undiscovered. We discuss future research directions, including field screening methodologies for pathogen detection, microbiome-based risk assessment approaches, and the development of novel prevention strategies, including tick vaccines.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14061281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T17:18:16Z","timestamp":1780679896000},"page":"1281","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Tick Microbiome and Its Role in Emerging Zoonotic Diseases and Transmissibility"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"So Youn","family":"Youn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacterial Disease Division, Department of Animal and Plant Health Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si 39660, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hyang-Sim","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacterial Disease Division, Department of Animal and Plant Health Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si 39660, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mi-Sun","family":"Yoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacterial Disease Division, Department of Animal and Plant Health Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si 39660, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1346-7067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yun Sang","family":"Cho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bacterial Disease Division, Department of Animal and Plant Health Research, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si 39660, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1086\/319347","article-title":"Ticks and tick-borne bacterial diseases in humans: An emerging infectious threat","volume":"32","author":"Parola","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S3","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182004005967","article-title":"The global importance of ticks","volume":"129","author":"Jongejan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"6938","article-title":"Overview: Ticks as vectors of pathogens that cause disease in humans and animals","volume":"13","author":"Venzal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ibmb.2003.09.002","article-title":"Adaptation of ticks to a blood-feeding environment: Evolution from a functional perspective","volume":"34","author":"Mans","year":"2004","journal-title":"Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"58","article-title":"Seasonal patterns of tick-borne pathogen prevalence in ticks from Southeastern Slovakia","volume":"43","author":"Chvostac","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Vector Ecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2015.03.010","article-title":"Tick microbiome: The force within","volume":"31","author":"Narasimhan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/16.5.357","article-title":"The mechanisms of pathogenicity in the tick paralyses","volume":"16","author":"Gothe","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"156","article-title":"Prevalence and genotypes of Babesia bovis in cattle in Sicily","volume":"152","author":"Torina","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.05.032","article-title":"Emerging perspectives in the research of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis","volume":"180","author":"Suarez","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2009.09.012","article-title":"The natural history of Anaplasma marginale","volume":"167","author":"Kocan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1865-1682.2010.01173.x","article-title":"A review of bovine anaplasmosis","volume":"58","author":"Aubry","year":"2011","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Norval, R.A., Perry, B.D., and Young, A.S. (1992). The Epidemiology of Theileriosis in Africa, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2009.09.014","article-title":"Natural history of Ehrlichia ruminantium","volume":"167","author":"Allsopp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-7-22","article-title":"Dogs, cats, parasites, and humans in Brazil: Opening the black box","volume":"7","author":"Otranto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitol. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2008.10.093","article-title":"Prevalence and geographic distribution of Dirofilaria immitis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia canis, and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in dogs in the United States: Results of a national clinic-based serologic survey","volume":"160","author":"Bowman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2007.12.030","article-title":"The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) (Acari: Ixodidae): From taxonomy to control","volume":"152","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02880.x","article-title":"ACVIM small animal consensus statement on Lyme disease in dogs: Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention","volume":"20","author":"Littman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"533","article-title":"Broad-based survey for Hepatozoon, Babesia, Ehrlichia, and Bartonella species in wild felids from the USA","volume":"107","author":"Reichard","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2061","DOI":"10.1139\/z00-172","article-title":"Biodiversity series: The function of biodiversity in the ecology of vector-borne zoonotic diseases","volume":"78","author":"Ostfeld","year":"2000","journal-title":"Can. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm6832a4","article-title":"Updated CDC recommendation for serologic diagnosis of Lyme disease","volume":"68","author":"Mead","year":"2019","journal-title":"MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3911","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2009.1159","article-title":"Hosts as ecological traps for the vector of Lyme disease","volume":"276","author":"Keesing","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0233733100","article-title":"The ecology of infectious disease: Effects of host diversity and community composition on Lyme disease risk","volume":"100","author":"LoGiudice","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1988.39.105","article-title":"Incompetence of deer as reservoirs of the Lyme disease spirochete","volume":"39","author":"Telford","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.51.2.394-396.1986","article-title":"Involvement of birds in the epidemiology of the Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi","volume":"51","author":"Anderson","year":"1986","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasle, G. (2013). Transport of ixodid ticks and tick-borne pathogens by migratory birds. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2013.00048"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2010.07.003","article-title":"From \u201cone medicine\u201d to \u201cone health\u201d and systemic approaches to health and well-being","volume":"101","author":"Zinsstag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.g143","article-title":"The evolution of One Health: A decade of progress and challenges for the future","volume":"174","author":"Gibbs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2014.02.003","article-title":"Effects of environmental change on zoonotic disease risk: An ecological primer","volume":"30","author":"Ostfeld","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2016.04.015","article-title":"Effects of climate and climate change on vectors and vector-borne diseases: Ticks are different","volume":"32","author":"Ogden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e004725","DOI":"10.1590\/s1984-29612025062","article-title":"Impact of climate change on the tick-host-pathogen complex: Distribution patterns, disease incidence, and host infestation","volume":"34","author":"Alasmari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-1","article-title":"Driving forces for changes in geographical distribution of Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe","volume":"6","author":"Medlock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-052720-094533","article-title":"The impacts of climate change on ticks and tick-borne disease risk","volume":"66","author":"Gilbert","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tonk-R\u00fcgen, M., Kratou, M., and Cabezas-Cruz, A. (2025). A Warming World, a Growing Threat: The Spread of Ticks and Emerging Tick-Borne Diseases. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14030213"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70064","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.70064","article-title":"Climate-associated variation in the within-season dynamics of juvenile ticks in California","volume":"15","author":"Sambado","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Estrada-Pe\u00f1a, A., and de la Feunte, J. (2026). Scietist\u2019s Opinion on Climate Change and Hard Ticks (Ixodidae). Pathogens, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens15020206"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1739.2003.01260.x","article-title":"Effects of forest fragmentation on Lyme disease risk","volume":"17","author":"Allan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Conserv. Biol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.2196","article-title":"The boreal forest and global change","volume":"363","author":"Ruckstuhl","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, N., Phipps, L.P., Hansford, K.M., Folly, A.J., Fooks, A.R., Medlock, J.M., and Mansfield, K.L. (2022). One Health Approach to Tick and Tick-Borne Disease Surveillance in the United Kingdom. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19105833"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vada, R., Zanet, S., Trisciuoglio, A., Varzandi, A.R., Calcagno, A., and Ferroglio, E. (2025). A one-health approach to surveillance of tick-borne pathogens across different host groups. BMC Vet. Res., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-025-04983-7"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19906","DOI":"10.2807\/ese.16.27.19906-en","article-title":"Lyme borreliosis in Europe","volume":"16","author":"Rizzoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Euro Surveill."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc1215469","article-title":"Human Borrelia miyamotoi infection in the United States","volume":"368","author":"Krause","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2009.09-0208","article-title":"Niche partitioning of Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi in the same tick vector and mammalian reservoir species","volume":"81","author":"Barbour","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16090","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2016.90","article-title":"Lyme borreliosis","volume":"2","author":"Steere","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00032-13","article-title":"Update on tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: A geographic approach","volume":"26","author":"Parola","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr6502a1","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of tick-borne diseases: Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other spotted fever group rickettsioses, ehrlichioses, and anaplasmosis\u2014United States","volume":"65","author":"Biggs","year":"2016","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2012.10.035","article-title":"Tick-borne rickettsioses in Europe","volume":"3","author":"Oteo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ticks Tick-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rieg, S., Schmoldt, S., Theilacker, C., De With, K., W\u00f6lfel, S., Kern, W.V., and Dobler, G. (2011). Tick-borne lymphadenopathy (TIBOLA) acquired in Southwestern Germany. BMC Infect. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-11-167"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.2006.00138.x","article-title":"Spotted fever rickettsioses in southern and eastern Europe","volume":"49","author":"Brouqui","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1309.060186","article-title":"Rickettsia monacensis and human disease, Spain","volume":"13","author":"Jado","year":"2007","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"829","article-title":"Molecular characterization of spotted fever group rickettsiae in ticks from northern Italy","volume":"58","author":"Beninati","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2009.09.013","article-title":"The natural history of Anaplasma phagocytophilum","volume":"167","author":"Woldehiwet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0372","article-title":"Case report: Molecular evidence of Anaplasma platys infection in two women from Venezuela","volume":"91","author":"Qurollo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stuen, S., Granquist, E.G., and Silaghi, C. (2013). Anaplasma phagocytophilum\u2014A widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2013.00031"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00064-10","article-title":"Mechanisms of obligatory intracellular infection with Anaplasma phagocytophilum","volume":"24","author":"Rikihisa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-0691.2002.00557.x","article-title":"Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Europe","volume":"8","author":"Blanco","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-51-6-2145","article-title":"Reorganization of genera in the families Rickettsiaceae and Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales: Unification of some species of Ehrlichia with Anaplasma, Cowdria with Ehrlichia and Ehrlichia with Neorickettsia, descriptions of six new species combinations and designation of Ehrlichia equi and \u2018HGE agent\u2019 as subjective synonyms of Anaplasma phagocytophilum","volume":"51","author":"Dumler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"85","article-title":"Neoehrlichia mikurensis: First cases in humans in Germany","volume":"18","author":"Silaghi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1409.009","article-title":"Tularemia: History, epidemiology, pathogen and pathogenesis","volume":"1105","author":"Sjostedt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S221","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182004005220","article-title":"Tick-borne viruses","volume":"129","author":"Labuda","year":"2004","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maldonad-Ruiz, P. (2024). The Tick Microbiome: The \u201cOther Bacterial Players\u201d in Tick Biocontrol. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12122451"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carpi, G., Cagnacci, F., Wittekindt, N.E., Zhao, F., Qi, J., Tomsho, L.P., Drautz, D.I., Rizzoli, A., and Schuster, S.C. (2011). Metagenomic profile of the bacterial communities associated with Ixodes ricinus ticks. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0025604"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.1099\/vir.0.011437-0","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis virus\u2014A review of an emerging zoonosis","volume":"90","author":"Mansfield","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1861","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60800-4","article-title":"Tick-borne encephalitis","volume":"371","author":"Lindquist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.07.006","article-title":"Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever: History, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical syndrome and genetic diversity","volume":"100","author":"Bente","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-ento-112408-085446","article-title":"Update on Powassan virus: Emergence of a North American tick-borne flavivirus","volume":"55","author":"Ebel","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1010095","article-title":"Fever with thrombocytopenia associated with a novel bunyavirus in China","volume":"364","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.07.004","article-title":"Babesia: A world emerging","volume":"12","author":"Schnittger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1202018","article-title":"Human babesiosis","volume":"366","author":"Vannier","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182009990916","article-title":"Progress towards understanding the immunology of Theileria parasites","volume":"136","author":"Morrison","year":"2009","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonnet, S.I., Binetruy, F., Hernandez-Jargui, A.M., and Duron, O. (2017). The tick microbiome: Why non-pathogenic microorganisms matter in tick biology and pathogen transmission. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2017.00236"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4963","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.13832","article-title":"Microbiome changes through ontogeny of a tick pathogen vector","volume":"25","author":"Zolnik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2596","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-018-0161-6","article-title":"Ixodes scapularis does not harbor a stable midgut microbiome","volume":"12","author":"Ross","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2012.71","article-title":"The arthropod, but not the vertebrate host or its environment, dictates bacterial community composition of fleas and ticks","volume":"7","author":"Hawlena","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2631","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-025-02119-z","article-title":"Genome-resolved metagenomics reveals microbiome diversity across 48 tick species","volume":"10","author":"Du","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-025-08520-1","article-title":"Nanopore sequencing reveals a diversity of microorganisms in ticks from Ethiopia","volume":"124","author":"Chadd","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodriguez-Duran, A., Andrade-Silva, V., Numan, M., Waldman, J., Ali, A., Logullo, C., da Silva Vaz Junior, I., and Parizi, L.F. (2025). Multi-Omics Technologies Applied to Improve Tick Research. Microorganisms, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202502.0740.v1"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6584","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00537-07","article-title":"Localization and visualization of a Coxiella-type symbiont within the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum","volume":"73","author":"Klyachko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ttbdis.2014.07.009","article-title":"The composition and transmission of microbiome in hard tick, Ixodes persulcatus, during blood meal","volume":"5","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ticks Tick.-Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiu, Y., Nakao, R., Ohnuma, A., Kawamori, F., and Sugimoto, C. (2014). Microbial population analysis of the salivary glands of ticks; a possible strategy for the surveillance of bacterial pathogens. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103961"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-0958-3","article-title":"Inhibition of the endosymbiont \u201cCandidatus Midichloria mitochondrii\u201d during 16S rRNA gene profiling reveals potential pathogens in Ixodes ticks from Australia","volume":"8","author":"Gofton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2535","DOI":"10.1099\/ijs.0.64386-0","article-title":"\u2018Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii\u2019 an endosymbiont of the tick Ixodes ricinus with a unique intramitochondrial lifestyle","volume":"56","author":"Sassera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.14094","article-title":"Evolutionary changes in symbiont community structure in ticks","volume":"26","author":"Duron","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2566","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.13187","article-title":"Concordance of bacterial communities of two tick species and blood of their shared rodent host","volume":"24","author":"Rynkiewicz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4371","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2008.03914.x","article-title":"Microbial communities and interactions in the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum","volume":"17","author":"Clay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6200","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01562-15","article-title":"Variation in the microbiota of Ixodes ticks with regard to geography, species, and sex","volume":"81","author":"Ponnusamy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"864","article-title":"An insight into the microbiome of the Amblyomma maculatum (Acari: Ixodidae)","volume":"5","author":"Budachetri","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams-Newkirk, A.J., Rowe, L.A., Mixson-Hayden, T.R., and Dasch, G.A. (2014). Characterization of the bacterial communities of life stages of free living lone star ticks (Amblyomma americanum). PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0102130"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"6584","article-title":"Composition and seasonal variation of Rhipicephalus turanicus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus bacterial communities","volume":"73","author":"Lalzar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andreotti, R., P\u00e9rez de Le\u00f3n, A.A., Dowd, S.E., Guerrero, F.D., Bendele, K.G., and Scoles, G.A. (2011). Assessment of bacterial diversity in the cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus through tag-encoded pyrosequencing. BMC Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-11-6"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2550-5","article-title":"Recent insights into the tick microbiome gained through next-generation sequencing","volume":"11","author":"Greay","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vayssier-Taussat, M., Moutailler, S., Michelet, L., Devillers, E., Bonnet, S., Cheval, J., Hebert, C., and Eloit, M. (2013). Next generation sequencing uncovers unexpected bacterial pathogens in ticks in western Europe. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0081439"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-019-3517-5","article-title":"Surface sterilization methods impact measures of internal microbial diversity in ticks","volume":"12","author":"Binetruy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11480","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01858-14","article-title":"Virome analysis of Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis, and Ixodes scapularis ticks and reveals novel highly divergent vertebrate and invertebrate viruses","volume":"88","author":"Tokarz","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Plantard, O., Bouju-Albert, A., Malard, M.A., Hermouet, A., Capron, G., and Verheyden, H. (2012). Detection of Wolbachia in the tick Ixodes ricinus is due to the presence of the hymenoptera endoparasitoid Ixodiphagus hookeri. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030692"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e05378","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.05378","article-title":"Unprecedented genomic diversity of RNA viruses in arthropods reveals the ancestry of negative-sense RNA viruses","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01358-18","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01358-18","article-title":"Extensive diversity of RNA viruses in Australian ticks","volume":"93","author":"Harvey","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1210-x","article-title":"Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes ricinus tick cell lines respond to infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus: Transcriptomic and proteomic analysis","volume":"8","author":"Weisheit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"100036","article-title":"Current debates and advances in tick microbiome research","volume":"2","author":"Hodzic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Parasitol. Vector Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e07308","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-026-07308-1","article-title":"Interaction between tick and host microbiotas: A four-step waltz","volume":"19","author":"Baquer","year":"2026","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1846","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.266","article-title":"The bacterial microbiome of Dermacentor andersoni ticks influences pathogen susceptibility","volume":"10","author":"Gall","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.12.001","article-title":"Gut microbiota of the tick vector Ixodes scapularis modulate colonization of the Lyme disease spirochete","volume":"15","author":"Narasimhan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E781","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1613422114","article-title":"Pathogen-mediated manipulation of arthropod microbiota to promote infection","volume":"114","author":"Abraham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras-Ferro, R., Trueba, J.M., S\u00e1nchez-Mora, P., Escudero, R., S\u00e1nchez-Seco, M.P., Montero, E., Negredo, A., Gonz\u00e1lez, L.M., Dashti, A., and Llorente, M.T. (2024). Why an Integrated Approach to Tick-Borne Pathogens (Bacterial, Viral, and Parasitic) Is Important in the Diagnosis of Clinical Cases. Trop. Med. Infect. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/tropicalmed9110272"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2025.07.009","article-title":"Tick and host microbiotas: Immunomodulators in tick-borne diseases?","volume":"41","author":"Boulanger","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, J., Lin, T., Mihalca, A.D., Niu, Q., and Oosthuizen, M.C. (2023). Editorial: Coinfections of Lyme disease and other tick-borne diseases. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1140545"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2009.0036","article-title":"Assessment of polymicrobial infections in ticks in New York State","volume":"10","author":"Tokarz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00011-06","article-title":"Coinfections acquired from Ixodes ticks","volume":"19","author":"Swanson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00249-24","article-title":"Coinfection dynamics of B. afzelii and TBEV in C3H mice: Insights and implications for future research","volume":"92","author":"Porcelli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmicom.2025.105069","article-title":"Detection of Rickettsia in ticks using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)","volume":"2","author":"Lansdell","year":"2025","journal-title":"CMI Commun."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"100120","article-title":"Recent advances in loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for rapid and efficient detection of pathogens","volume":"3","author":"Garg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Microb. Sci."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Willson, R., Zhao, Y., Brosamer, K., Pal, Y., Blanton, L.S., Arroyave, E., Roach, C., Walker, D.H., Kourentzi, K., and Fang, R. (2025). Development of a rapid antigen-based lateral flow assay for tick-borne spotted fever rickettsioses. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0312819"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00151-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mSphere.00151-17","article-title":"Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia miyamotoi, and Powassan virus in ticks by a multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay","volume":"2","author":"Tokarz","year":"2017","journal-title":"mSphere"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vas.2026.100594","article-title":"Field performance of a point-of-care PCR platform for the detection of influenza A virus in growing pigs","volume":"32","author":"Dalesio","year":"2026","journal-title":"Vet. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nepveu-Traversy, M.E., Fausther-Bovendo, H., and Babuadze, G. (2024). Human Tick-Borne Diseases and Advances in Anti-Tick Vaccine Approaches: A Comprehensive Review. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12020141"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S82","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiae202","article-title":"Vaccination to Prevent Lyme Disease: A Movement Towards Anti-Tick Approaches","volume":"230","author":"Johnson","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-06683-5","article-title":"Fourteen anti-tick vaccine targets are variably conserved in cattle fever ticks","volume":"18","author":"Busch","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2009.09.019","article-title":"Functional genomics and evolution of tick-Anaplasma interactions and vaccine development","volume":"167","author":"Kocan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.16.4.698-712.2003","article-title":"Antigens and alternatives for control of Anaplasma marginale infection in cattle","volume":"16","author":"Kocan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7205a1","article-title":"Tick-Borne Encephalitis Vaccine: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2023","volume":"72","author":"Hills","year":"2023","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Cueto, E., de la Fuente, J., and L\u00f3pez-Camacho, C. (2024). Potential of mRNA-based vaccines for the control of tick-borne pathogens in one health perspective. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1384442"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mateos-Hern\u00e1ndez, L., Obreg\u00f3n, D., Wu-Chuang, A., Maye, J., Born\u00e9res, J., Versill\u00e9, N., de la Fuente, J., D\u00edaz-S\u00e1nchez, S., Berm\u00fadez-Humar\u00e1n, L.G., and Torres-Maravilla, E. (2021). Anti-Microbiota Vaccines Modulate the Tick Microbiome in a Taxon-Specific Manner. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.704621"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S105","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3014.240128","article-title":"Metagenomic Nanopore Sequencing of Tick-borne Pathogens, Mongolia","volume":"30","author":"Ergunay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e537","DOI":"10.1002\/edn3.537","article-title":"Design and partial validation of novel eDNA qPCR assays for three common North American tick (Arachnida: Ixodida) species","volume":"6","author":"Iacaruso","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. DNA"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8588","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-12619-1","article-title":"A generalizable one health framework for the control of zoonotic diseases","volume":"12","author":"Ghai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1281\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T17:45:02Z","timestamp":1780681502000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1281"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]},"references-count":124,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms14061281"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms14061281","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]]}}}