{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T04:53:39Z","timestamp":1781844819807,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]],"date-time":"2026-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781308800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neospora caninum is a major cause of reproductive failure in cattle, responsible for epidemic abortion outbreaks that inflict annual billion-dollar losses on the global livestock industry. In water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), however, a phylogenetically close relative often raised in the same environments, the same parasite typically establishes a subclinical persistent infection with markedly lower rates of clinical abortion. This review inverts the traditional narrative by arguing that the key to next-generation control strategies lies in understanding the tolerant host (buffalo) rather than solely the susceptible host (cattle). By dissecting this \u201cNeospora paradox\u201d, we explore the molecular and immunological crosstalk that dictates pregnancy outcomes. We examine the parasite\u2019s invasion proteins, revealed by CRISPR-Cas9 screens, and the maternal\u2013fetal interface, where the balance between immune tolerance and parasite control determines the fate of pregnancy. We also compare N. caninum with the related zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii to highlight how differential host immune recognition shapes infection outcomes. Finally, we propose that deciphering the buffalo\u2019s successful equilibrium with N. caninum can illuminate novel pathways for vaccines and immunotherapeutic strategies, transforming the management of neosporosis worldwide.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14061329","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T00:44:58Z","timestamp":1781484298000},"page":"1329","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Neospora caninum Paradox: Comparative Biology of Cattle and Water Buffalo Reveals Pathways to Control Bovine Neosporosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Chiara","family":"Storoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9085-7125","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna-Rita","family":"Attili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Okoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine & Veterinary Medicine, Trakia University, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8533-5015","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yubao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Food Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9536-3506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Cuteri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62024 Matelica, Italy"},{"name":"School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Food Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng 252000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.05.031","article-title":"Neosporosis in animals\u2014The last five years","volume":"180","author":"Dubey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2012.10.022","article-title":"What is the global economic impact of Neospora caninum in cattle\u2014The billion dollar question","volume":"43","author":"Reichel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00031-06","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of neosporosis and Neospora caninum","volume":"20","author":"Dubey","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-020-01266-w","article-title":"Neospora caninum infection in Iran (2004\u20132020): A review","volume":"44","author":"Gharekhani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"233","article-title":"Occurrence of Neospora caninum antibodies in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from the south-western region of Iran","volume":"51","author":"Goraninejad","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"74","article-title":"Neosporosis in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in southern Italy","volume":"152","author":"Guarino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"111","article-title":"Occurrence of Neospora caninum in dogs and cattle in Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil","volume":"15","author":"Andreotti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-025-01858-4","article-title":"Sero-positivity of anti-Toxoplasma gondii and anti-Neospora caninum antibodies among cattle and buffaloes from delta of Egypt","volume":"50","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"231","article-title":"Is buffalo more resistant to Neospora caninum infection than cattle?","volume":"15","author":"Toompong","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mahanakorn Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(02)00094-2","article-title":"Redescription of Neospora caninum and its differentiation from related coccidia","volume":"32","author":"Dubey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(98)00138-6","article-title":"Dogs are definitive hosts of Neospora caninum","volume":"28","author":"McAllister","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2004.01.001","article-title":"Coyotes (Canis latrans) are definitive hosts of Neospora caninum","volume":"34","author":"Gondim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02414-5","article-title":"The comparative pathogenesis of neosporosis","volume":"18","author":"Buxton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dubey, J.P., Hemphill, A., Calero-Bernal, R., and Schares, G. (2017). Neosporosis in Animals, CRC Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315152561"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.21423\/bovine-vol41no1p10-14","article-title":"A Review of Neospora caninum in cattle","volume":"41","author":"Sanderson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bov. Pract."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2003.41.1.1","article-title":"Review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis in animals","volume":"41","author":"Dubey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(02)00010-9","article-title":"Natural transmission routes of Neospora caninum between farm dogs and cattle","volume":"105","author":"Dijkstra","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2005.09.005","article-title":"Endogenous and exogenous transplacental infection in Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"21","author":"Trees","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Zhao, Z., Wang, H., Chen, L., Cui, Q., Yan, H., Shi, X., Fu, H., Dong, H., and Zhang, N. (2025). Brief Review on Bovine Neosporosis Vertical Transmission and its Hazards. China Dairy, 62\u201368."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2005.07.004","article-title":"The host-parasite relationship in bovine neosporosis","volume":"108","author":"Innes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1683","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(99)00129-0","article-title":"Estimation of vertical and horizontal transmission parameters of Neospora caninum infections in dairy cattle","volume":"29","author":"Davison","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4017(96)01035-7","article-title":"A review of Neospora caninum and neosporosis","volume":"67","author":"Dubey","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1177\/030098589002700508","article-title":"Bovine fetal encephalitis and myocarditis associated with protozoal infections","volume":"27","author":"Barr","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5699(97)01127-4","article-title":"Th1-type immunity is incompatible with successful pregnancy","volume":"18","author":"Raghupathy","year":"1997","journal-title":"Immunol. Today"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S1471-4922(02)02372-3","article-title":"Immune responses to Neospora caninum and prospects for vaccination","volume":"18","author":"Innes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2015.08.008","article-title":"A review of Neospora caninum in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)","volume":"212","author":"Reichel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"379","article-title":"Assessment of Neospora caninum seroprevalence in buffalo in Tabriz city, north-west of Iran","volume":"36","author":"Yagoob","year":"2017","journal-title":"Buffalo Bull."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2005.05.064","article-title":"Occurrence of anti-Neospora caninum antibodies in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) from the Northern region of Brazil","volume":"134","author":"Gennari","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Barros, L.D., Garcia, J.L., Navarro, I.T., Freire, R.L., Headley, S.A., de Oliveira, L.G.S., Vieira, L.F., Lacerda, O.D., and Soares, V.E. (2020). A review of toxoplasmosis and neosporosis in water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00455"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2011.12.030","article-title":"Experimental infection of pregnant buffalo heifers with Neospora caninum tachyzoites","volume":"187","author":"Konrad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"689","article-title":"Comparative histopathological study of placentomes from cattle and buffaloes naturally infected by Neospora caninum","volume":"36","author":"Ueno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pesq. Vet. Bras."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MacEachern, S., McEwan, J., and Goddard, M. (2009). Phylogenetic reconstruction and the identification of ancient polymorphism in the Bovini tribe (Bovidae, Bovinae). BMC Genom., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-10-177"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2006.03.008","article-title":"Neospora caninum in wildlife","volume":"22","author":"Gondim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Cockrill, W.R. (1974). The Water Buffalo, Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO Animal Production and Health Series No. 4."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"171","article-title":"Proteins involved in host-cell invasion and pathogenicity of Neospora caninum","volume":"46","author":"Hemphill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4791","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.8.4791-4800.2004","article-title":"Identification and characterization of a Neospora caninum microneme-associated protein (NcMIC4) that exhibits unique lactose-binding properties","volume":"72","author":"Keller","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2808","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.emboj.7601704","article-title":"Atomic resolution insight into host cell recognition by Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"26","author":"Blumenschein","year":"2007","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-011-2332-5","article-title":"Identification of the cross-reactive and species-specific antigens between Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites by a proteomics approach","volume":"109","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1800","article-title":"Kiss and spit: The dual roles of Toxoplasma rhoptries","volume":"6","author":"Boothroyd","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182015001511","article-title":"Characterization of the Neospora caninum NcROP40 and NcROP2Fam-1 rhoptry proteins during the tachyzoite lytic cycle","volume":"143","author":"Hemphill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109973","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2023.109973","article-title":"Characterization of Neospora caninum virulence factors NcGRA7 and NcROP40 in bovine target cells","volume":"320","author":"Amieva","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2017.04.020","article-title":"Neospora caninum ROP16 plays an important role in the pathogenicity by phosphorylating host cell STAT3","volume":"243","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"e00282-18","article-title":"Neospora caninum dense granule protein 7 regulates the host immune response through modulation of cytokine production","volume":"86","author":"Nishikawa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2017.09.001","article-title":"Neospora caninum in non-pregnant and pregnant mouse models: Cross-talk between infection and immunity","volume":"47","author":"Basto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, L., Liu, J., Li, M., Fu, Y., Zhang, X., and Liu, Q. (2017). Rhoptry protein 5 (ROP5) is a key virulence factor in Neospora caninum. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00370"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rico-San Rom\u00e1n, L., Amieva, R., Regidor-Cerrillo, J., Garc\u00eda-S\u00e1nchez, M., Collantes-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., Pastor-Fern\u00e1ndez, I., Saeij, J.P.J., Ortega-Mora, L.M., and Horcajo, P. (2022). NcGRA7 and NcROP40 play a role in the virulence of Neospora caninum in a pregnant mouse model. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11090998"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rico-San Rom\u00e1n, L., H\u00e4nggeli, K.P.A., Hemphill, A., Horcajo, P., Collantes-Fern\u00e1ndez, E., Ortega-Mora, L.M., and Boubaker, G. (2024). TaqMan-quantitative PCR assays applied in Neospora caninum knock-outs generated through CRISPR-Cas9 allow to determine the copy numbers of integrated dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase drug selectable markers. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1419209"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2018.03.018","article-title":"NcGRA17 is an important regulator of parasitophorous vacuole morphology and pathogenicity of Neospora caninum","volume":"264","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2427844","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2024.2427844","article-title":"Immunization with the NcMYR1 gene knockout strain effectively protected C57BL\/6 mice and their pups against the Neospora caninum challenge","volume":"15","author":"Du","year":"2024","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-5699(93)90235-D","article-title":"Bidirectional cytokine interactions in the maternal-fetal relationship: Is successful pregnancy a TH2 phenomenon?","volume":"14","author":"Wegmann","year":"1993","journal-title":"Immunol. Today"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1006\/expr.1996.4110","article-title":"Neospora caninum: Role for immune cytokines in host immunity","volume":"85","author":"Khan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2352","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01780-06","article-title":"Upregulation of cytokines is detected in the placentas of cattle infected with Neospora caninum and is more marked early in gestation when fetal death is observed","volume":"76","author":"Rosbottom","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosbottom, A., Gibney, H., Kaiser, P., Hartley, C., Smith, R.F., Robinson, R., Kipar, A., and Williams, D.J. (2011). Up regulation of the maternal immune response in the placenta of cattle naturally infected with Neospora caninum. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0015799"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"484","article-title":"The histone acetyltransferase GCN5 and the deacetylase HDAC3 control the lytic cycle of Toxoplasma gondii","volume":"7","author":"Bougdour","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reid, A.J., Vermont, S.J., Cotton, J.A., Harris, D., Hill-Cawthorne, G.A., K\u00f6nen-Waisman, S., Latham, S.M., Mourier, T., Norton, R., and Quail, M.A. (2012). Comparative genomics of the apicomplexan parasites Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum: Coccidia differing in host range and transmission strategy. PLoS Pathog., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1002567"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Schmidt, S. (2005). Morphology of Peri-Partal Placentomes and Post-Partal Foetal Membranes in African Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and Comparative Aspects with Cattle (Bos taurus). [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Pretoria]. Available online: https:\/\/docslib.org\/doc\/1107669\/morphology-of-peri-partal-placentomes-and-post-partal-foetal-membranes-in-african-buffalo-syncerus-caffer-and-comparative-aspects-with-cattle-bos-taurus."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0940-9602(03)80053-5","article-title":"Microvascular architecture of the fetal cotyledons in water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) during different stages of pregnancy","volume":"185","author":"Miglino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Anat."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1037","article-title":"Regulatory T cells mediate maternal tolerance to the fetus","volume":"5","author":"Aluvihare","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00027-20","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00027-20","article-title":"Immediate interferon gamma induction determines murine host compatibility differences between Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum","volume":"88","author":"Coombs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.167.1.416","article-title":"Activation of Toll-like receptor-2 by glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchors from a protozoan parasite","volume":"167","author":"Campos","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"92","article-title":"Genetic diversity and population structure of Neospora caninum in livestock","volume":"179","author":"Moore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"66","article-title":"Genetic diversity of Neospora caninum in Scottish cattle","volume":"212","author":"Bartley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"24","article-title":"Neospora caninum infection in pregnant cattle: Impact of isolate virulence on pregnancy outcome","volume":"43","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2002.tb10967.x","article-title":"Characterisation of the first Australian isolate of Neospora caninum from cattle","volume":"80","author":"Miller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"28","article-title":"Isolation and molecular characterization of Neospora caninum from a naturally infected calf in Argentina","volume":"271","author":"Moore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2006.03.035","article-title":"Diagnosis of bovine neosporosis","volume":"140","author":"Dubey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00092-8","article-title":"Use of purified tachyzoite surface antigen p38 in an ELISA to diagnose bovine neosporosis","volume":"30","author":"Schares","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01343-19","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01343-19","article-title":"Chimeric protein designed by genome-scale immunoinformatics enhances serodiagnosis of bovine neosporosis","volume":"58","author":"Pereira","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exppara.2014.02.015","article-title":"Vaccines against neosporosis: What can we learn from the past studies?","volume":"140","author":"Monney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2004.06.016","article-title":"Effect of a killed whole Neospora caninum tachyzoite vaccine on the crude abortion rate of Costa Rican dairy cows under field conditions","volume":"123","author":"Romero","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2005.00809.x","article-title":"Protecting babies: Vaccine strategies to prevent foetopathy in Neospora caninum-infected cattle","volume":"28","author":"Williams","year":"2006","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2005.03.006","article-title":"Reduction in transplacental transmission of Neospora caninum in outbred mice by vaccination","volume":"35","author":"Miller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7519(00)00088-6","article-title":"A POLYGENTM-adjuvanted killed Neospora caninum tachyzoite preparation failed to prevent foetal infection in pregnant cattle following experimental intravenous challenge","volume":"30","author":"Andrianarivo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2010.10.016","article-title":"Monensin use against Neospora caninum challenge in dairy cattle","volume":"175","author":"VanLeeuwen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1994.55.07.976","article-title":"Examination of the activities of 43 chemotherapeutic agents against Neospora caninum tachyzoites in cultured cells","volume":"55","author":"Lindsay","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"101","article-title":"An explorative study to assess the efficacy of toltrazuril against Neospora caninum infection in mice","volume":"110","author":"Kritzner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2015.03.019","article-title":"Study on the use of toltrazuril to eliminate Neospora caninum in congenitally infected lambs born from experimentally infected ewes","volume":"210","author":"Howe","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"510","article-title":"Application of a new therapeutic protocol against Neospora caninum-induced abortion in cattle: A field study","volume":"4","author":"Cuteri","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Anim. Vet. Adv."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetpar.2024.110362","article-title":"Inhibition of Neospora caninum activity by niclosamide: Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies","volume":"334","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Dubey, J.P. (2010). Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Humans, CRC Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16412-X","article-title":"Toxoplasmosis","volume":"363","author":"Montoya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182017000063","article-title":"Importance of serological cross-reactivity among Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia spp., Neospora spp., Sarcocystis spp. and Besnoitia besnoiti","volume":"144","author":"Gondim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2506.181431","article-title":"Absence of Neospora caninum DNA in human clinical samples, Spain","volume":"25","author":"Horcajo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2011.08.001","article-title":"Toxoplasma gondii effectors are master regulators of the inflammatory response","volume":"27","author":"Melo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iamartino, D., Nicolazzi, E.L., Van Tassell, C.P., Reecy, J.M., Fritz-Waters, E.R., Koltes, J.E., Biffani, S., Sonstegard, T.S., Schroeder, S.G., and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2017). Design and validation of a 90K SNP genotyping assay for the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis). PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0185220"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1329\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T04:29:54Z","timestamp":1781843394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/6\/1329"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms14061329"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms14061329","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,13]]}}}