{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T13:09:17Z","timestamp":1788959357350,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788912000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004488","name":"Croatian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UIP-2020-02-2528"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIP-2020-02-2528"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004488","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["UIP-2020-02-2528"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIP-2020-02-2528"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03n51vw80","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Campylobacter jejuni remains a leading cause of foodborne gastroenteritis worldwide, yet the epidemiological role of wild birds as reservoirs remains poorly understood. This study investigated the genetic diversity, transmission dynamics, and virulome architecture of 396 C. jejuni isolates collected in Croatia (2021\u20132025) from human, yellow-legged gull, broiler, bovine, and turkey sources. Whole-genome sequencing revealed high genomic diversity (SI&gt;0.88), encompassing 124 sequence types across 25 clonal complexes. While classical MLST clustered 17.01% (n = 25\/147, 95% CI: 11.83\u201323.82%) of gull isolates with human-associated lineages, high-resolution cg\/wgMLST refined this overlap, segregating the majority of yellow-legged gull strains into a distinct, host-adapted ST-1275 clade (51.02%, n = 75\/147). Furthermore, cg\/wgMLST identified shared multi-host genotypes, such as CT6518 (ST-353) and CT3006 (ST-443), across wild gulls, domestic livestock, and clinical human cases. Virulome screening revealed a conserved pathogenic core alongside a lineage-specific periphery; the Guillain-Barr\u00e9-syndrome-associated wlaN gene showed strong restriction to the dominant ST-21 generalist lineage, whereas the Type IV Secretion System was exceptionally rare (&lt;1.5%). These findings demonstrate that, while most yellow-legged gull isolates constitute host-adapted lineages, gulls also harbor overlapping genotypes shared with livestock and clinical human isolates (6.80%, 95% CI: 3.69\u201312.18%), compatible with shared ecological niches and common contamination sources rather than direct bird-to-human transmission. This highlights their role as environmental sentinels and potential bridge reservoirs within One Health transmission interfaces. This study provides an indispensable baseline for integrated One Health biosecurity and surveillance strategies that bring together poultry production, ecosystem management, and public health infrastructure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14092000","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T12:26:11Z","timestamp":1788956771000},"page":"2000","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["High-Resolution Genomic Profiling of Campylobacter jejuni Across Human, Livestock, and Yellow-Legged Gull Reservoirs in Croatia Reveals Lineage Segregation and Shared Environmental Genotypes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1308-267X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sanja","family":"Duvnjak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6216-3978","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luka","family":"Jurinovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poultry Centre, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Vjekoslava Heinzela 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6270-5520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fani","family":"Krstulovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poultry Centre, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Vjekoslava Heinzela 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Viktor","family":"Ma\u0161ovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poultry Centre, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Vjekoslava Heinzela 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3027-1306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Humski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4934-1357","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gordan","family":"Kompes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5567-681X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonela","family":"Bagari\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-8930-2845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Postru\u017ein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2198-557X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Irena","family":"Reil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Croatian Veterinary Institute, Savska cesta 143, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5260-6106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Merica","family":"Carev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Teaching Institute for Public Health, Split-Dalmatia County, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Science, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Split, 21000 Split, Croatia"},{"name":"ESCMID Food-and-Waterborne Study Group, 4051 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7348-6895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domagoj","family":"Drenjan\u010devi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology and Hospital Infections, University Hospital Centre Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"},{"name":"Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectology, Faculty of Medicine Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, 31000 Osijek, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Silvija \u0160oprek","family":"Strugar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESCMID Food-and-Waterborne Study Group, 4051 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Parasitology, Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital for Infectious Diseases \u201cDr. Fran Mihaljevi\u0107\u201d, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, Catholic University Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6232-1465","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arjana Tambi\u0107","family":"Andra\u0161evi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Microbiology, University Hospital for Infectious Diseases \u201cDr. Fran Mihaljevi\u0107\u201d, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"},{"name":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Mirna","family":"Vrani\u0107-Ladavac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Public Health Institute of Istria County, 52100 Pula, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Jasmina","family":"Ku\u010dinar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Serology and Immunology, Public Health Institute of Istria County, 52100 Pula, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3835-3744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Louie Thomas","family":"Taylor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Ornithology, Croatian Academy of Science and Arts, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2882-6528","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Biljana","family":"Je\u010dmenica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poultry Centre, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Vjekoslava Heinzela 55, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, September 02). WHO\u2019s First Ever Global Estimates of Foodborne Diseases Find Children Under 5 Account for Almost One Third of Deaths. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/03-12-2015-who-s-first-ever-global-estimates-of-foodborne-diseases-find-children-under-5-account-for-almost-one-third-of-deaths."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"EFSA (2025, September 02). \n\t\t  \u00a0Campylobacter\n\t\t  \n\t\t  . Available online: https:\/\/www.efsa.europa.eu\/en\/topics\/topic\/campylobacter."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2025, September 03). Regulation-2160\/2003-EN-EUR-Lex. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/reg\/2003\/2160\/oj\/eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1332","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02060-07","article-title":"Retrospective Study of Campylobacter Infection in a Zoological Collection","volume":"74","author":"Taema","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"E79","article-title":"Campylobacter: From Microbiology to Prevention","volume":"58","author":"Riso","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Prev. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2015.11.019","article-title":"Campylobacteriosis: The Role of Poultry Meat","volume":"22","author":"Skarp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852195","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/852195","article-title":"Role of Campylobacter jejuni Infection in the Pathogenesis of Guillain-Barr\u00e9 Syndrome: An Update","volume":"2013","author":"Nyati","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268819002292","article-title":"Campylobacteriosis Associated with the Consumption of Unpasteurised Milk: Findings from a Sentinel Surveillance Site","volume":"148","author":"Davys","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aksomaitiene, J., Novoslavskij, A., and Malakauskas, M. (2023). Whole-Genome Sequencing-Based Profiling of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes and Core-Genome Multilocus Sequence Typing of Campylobacter jejuni from Different Sources in Lithuania. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms242116017"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1803.111024","article-title":"Poultry Culling and Campylobacteriosis Reduction among Humans, the Netherlands","volume":"18","author":"Friesema","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agunos, A., Waddell, L., L\u00e9ger, D., and Taboada, E. (2014). A Systematic Review Characterizing On-Farm Sources of Campylobacter Spp. for Broiler Chickens. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0104905"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4811","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01456-16","article-title":"Influence of Host Ecology and Behavior on Campylobacter jejuni Prevalence and Environmental Contamination Risk in a Synanthropic Wild Bird Species","volume":"82","author":"Taff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5911","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.68.12.5911-5917.2002","article-title":"Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter lari, and Campylobacter coli in Different Ecological Guilds and Taxa of Migrating Birds","volume":"68","author":"Broman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3583","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02491-07","article-title":"Comparison of Campylobacter Populations in Wild Geese with Those in Starlings and Free-Range Poultry on the Same Farm","volume":"74","author":"Colles","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00315-15","DOI":"10.1128\/genomeA.00315-15","article-title":"Whole-Genome Sequences of Eight Campylobacter jejuni Isolates from Wild Birds","volume":"3","author":"Shyaka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genome Announc."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"001031","article-title":"Environmental Dynamics of Campylobacter jejuni Genotypes Circulating in Luxembourg: What Is the Role of Wild Birds?","volume":"9","author":"Hock","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.2307\/1593019","article-title":"Fecal Shedding and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Selected Bacterial Pathogens and a Survey of Intestinal Parasites in Free-Living Waterfowl","volume":"45","author":"Fallacara","year":"2001","journal-title":"Avian Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1186\/1751-0147-46-193","article-title":"Screening of Feral Pigeon (Colomba livia), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and Graylag Goose (Anser anser) Populations for Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., Avian Influenza Virus and Avian Paramyxovirus","volume":"46","author":"Lillehaug","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.2-89.v1","article-title":"Campylobacter jejuni Genomes Exhibit Notable GC Variation within Housekeeping Genes. [Version 1; Peer Review: 2 Not Approved]","volume":"2","author":"Mohan","year":"2013","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2014.09.007","article-title":"Wild-Bird Feces as a Source of Campylobacter jejuni Infection in Children\u2019s Playgrounds in Iran","volume":"50","author":"Abdollahpour","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohan, V. (2015). Faeco-Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni in Urban Wild Birds and Pets in New Zealand. BMC Res. Notes, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-8-1"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1080\/00071668.2016.1148262","article-title":"Isolation, Identification and Antibiotic Resistance of Campylobacter Strains Isolated from Domestic and Free-Living Pigeons","volume":"57","author":"Dudzic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160oprek, S., Ujevi\u0107, J., Kompes, G., Jurinovi\u0107, L., and Tambi\u0107 Andra\u0161evi\u0107, A. (2023). First Report of Campylobacter jejuni Strains Belonging to ST-21 Clonal Complex Isolated from Human, Poultry and Wild Birds in Croatia: Antimicrobial Resistance and Genetic Distance. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11081884"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0809.02-0122","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni Clones: A Basis for Epidemiologic Investigation","volume":"8","author":"Dingle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nennig, M., Llarena, A.-K., Herold, M., Mossong, J., Penny, C., Losch, S., Tresse, O., and Ragimbeau, C. (2020). Investigating Major Recurring Campylobacter jejuni Lineages in Luxembourg Using Four Core or Whole Genome Sequencing Typing Schemes. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.608020"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00017-17","article-title":"Whole-Genome Sequencing in Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuni Infections","volume":"55","author":"Llarena","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70176","DOI":"10.1002\/mbo3.70176","article-title":"Campylobacter Species Isolated from Wild Birds in Switzerland and Comparison to Isolates from Food and Human Origin","volume":"14","author":"Stevens","year":"2025","journal-title":"MicrobiologyOpen"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marotta, F., Janowicz, A., Di Marcantonio, L., Ercole, C., Di Donato, G., Garofolo, G., and Di Giannatale, E. (2020). Molecular Characterization and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of C. jejuni Isolates from Italian Wild Bird Populations. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9040304"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70017","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.70017","article-title":"Age-Related Presence and Genetic Diversity of Campylobacter Spp. in Young and Adult Yellow-Legged Gulls (Larus michahellis) in Croatia","volume":"16","author":"Duvnjak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2015.04.025","article-title":"Genetic Diversity and Host Associations in Campylobacter jejuni from Human Cases and Broilers in 2000 and 2008","volume":"178","author":"Griekspoor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-06-136","article-title":"Prevalence of three Campylobacter species, C. jejuni, C. coli, and C. lari, using multilocus sequence typing in wild birds of the mid\u2011Atlantic region, USA","volume":"50","author":"Keller","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iglesias-Torrens, Y., Mir\u00f3, E., Guirado, P., Llovet, T., Mu\u00f1oz, C., Cerd\u00e0-Cu\u00e9llar, M., Madrid, C., Balsalobre, C., and Navarro, F. (2018). Population Structure, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Virulence-Associated Genes in Campylobacter jejuni Isolated from Three Ecological Niches: Gastroenteritis Patients, Broilers, and Wild Birds. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01676"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurinovi\u0107, L., Duvnjak, S., Kompes, G., \u0160oprek, S., \u0160impraga, B., Krstulovi\u0107, F., Mikuli\u0107, M., and Humski, A. (2020). Occurrence of Campylobacter jejuni in Gulls Feeding on Zagreb Rubbish Tip, Croatia; Their Diversity and Antimicrobial Susceptibility in Perspective with Human and Broiler Isolates. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9090695"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2017). Microbiology of the food chain \u2014 horizontal method for detection and enumeration of Campylobacter spp. \u2014 Part 1: Detection method (Standard No. Standard\u2019 s EN ISO 10272\u20111: 2017)."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4744","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.12.4744-4747.2002","article-title":"Colony Multiplex PCR Assay for Identification and Differentiation of Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, C. lari, C. upsaliensis, and C. fetus Subsp. Fetus","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0160oprek, S., Duvnjak, S., Kompes, G., Jurinovi\u0107, L., and Tambi\u0107 Andra\u0161evi\u0107, A. (2022). Resistome Analysis of Campylobacter jejuni Strains Isolated from Human Stool and Primary Sterile Samples in Croatia. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10071410"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2026, February 01). Andrews Babraham Bioinformatics\u2014FastQC. A Quality Control Tool for High Throughput Sequence Data. Available online: https:\/\/www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk\/projects\/fastqc\/."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R46","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2014-15-3-r46","article-title":"Kraken: Ultrafast Metagenomic Sequence Classification Using Exact Alignments","volume":"15","author":"Wood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btp324","article-title":"Fast and Accurate Short Read Alignment with Burrows\u2013Wheeler Transform","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2012.0021","article-title":"SPAdes: A New Genome Assembly Algorithm and Its Applications to Single-Cell Sequencing","volume":"19","author":"Bankevich","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comput. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btt086","article-title":"QUAST: Quality Assessment Tool for Genome Assemblies","volume":"29","author":"Gurevich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bioinformatics"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.2522","article-title":"Updating Benchtop Sequencing Performance Comparison","volume":"31","author":"Sedlazeck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.14826.1","article-title":"Open-Access Bacterial Population Genomics: BIGSdb Software, the PubMLST.Org Website and Their Applications","volume":"3","author":"Jolley","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D687","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky1080","article-title":"VFDB 2019: A Comparative Pathogenomic Platform with an Interactive Web Interface","volume":"47","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"2349","article-title":"Orange: Data Mining Toolbox in Python","volume":"14","author":"Curk","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12314","article-title":"Wild Bird-associated Campylobacter jejuni Isolates Are a Consistent Source of Human Disease, in Oxfordshire, United Kingdom","volume":"7","author":"Cody","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reichelt, B., Szott, V., Epping, L., Semmler, T., Merle, R., Roesler, U., and Friese, A. (2022). Transmission Pathways of Campylobacter Spp. at Broiler Farms and Their Environment in Brandenburg, Germany. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.982693"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joensen, K.G., S\u00f8rensen, G., Gymoese, P., Dahl, L.G., and Nielsen, E.M. (2025). The Clonal Spread and Persistence of Campylobacter in Danish Broiler Farms and Its Association with Human Infections. Pathogens, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens14080821"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105578","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2024.105578","article-title":"Whole Genome Sequence-Based Characterization of Campylobacter Isolated from Broiler Carcasses over a Three-Year Period in a Big Poultry Slaughterhouse Reveals High Genetic Diversity and a Recurring Genomic Lineage of Campylobacter jejuni","volume":"119","author":"Stevens","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"000941","article-title":"Whole-Genome-Based Characterization of Campylobacter jejuni from Human Patients with Gastroenteritis Collected over an 18 Year Period Reveals Increasing Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance","volume":"9","author":"Ghielmetti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Genom."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3484","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-294X.2011.05179.x","article-title":"Niche Segregation and Genetic Structure of Campylobacter jejuni Populations from Wild and Agricultural Host Species","volume":"20","author":"Sheppard","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0037-9","article-title":"Campylobacter jejuni: Collective Components Promoting a Successful Enteric Lifestyle","volume":"16","author":"Burnham","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wieczorek, K., Wo\u0142kowicz, T., and Osek, J. (2018). Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence-Associated Traits of Campylobacter jejuni Isolated from Poultry Food Chain and Humans with Diarrhea. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01508"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wysok, B., Wojtacka, J., H\u00e4nninen, M.-L., and Kivist\u00f6, R. (2020). Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence-Associated Markers in Campylobacter Strains from Diarrheic and Non-Diarrheic Humans in Poland. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.01799"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panzenhagen, P., Portes, A.B., dos Santos, A.M.P., Duque, S.d.S., and Conte Junior, C.A. (2021). The Distribution of Campylobacter jejuni Virulence Genes in Genomes Worldwide Derived from the NCBI Pathogen Detection Database. Genes, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes12101538"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habib, I., Mohamed, M.-Y.I., Lakshmi, G.B., Al Marzooqi, H.M., Afifi, H.S., Shehata, M.G., Khan, M., Ghazawi, A., Abdalla, A., and Anes, F. (2024). Quantitative Assessment and Genomic Profiling of Campylobacter Dynamics in Poultry Processing: A Case Study in the United Arab Emirates Integrated Abattoir System. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1439424"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, M.-Y.I., Khalifa, H.O., and Habib, I. (2025). The Role of Virulence Genes in Campylobacter Pathogenicity: A Perspective from the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1584835"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/9\/2000\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T12:56:00Z","timestamp":1788958560000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/9\/2000"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms14092000"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms14092000","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]]}}}