{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:08:47Z","timestamp":1792789727261,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789603200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the Scottish Government and Welsh Government","award":["SE0576"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SE0576"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/000wh6t45","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["SE0576"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SE0576"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/000wh6t45","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne pathogen predominantly transmitted by Culex mosquitoes. Although birds are the primary hosts, other vertebrates, such as humans and horses, can also be affected. WNV incidence is increasing globally, expanding to northerly latitudes. This study investigated the vector competence of UK Culex pipiens exposed to WNV lineage 1 (Lin1) and lineage 2 (Lin2) at temperatures frequently experienced during northern European summers. Colonised Cx. pipiens exposed to blood meals containing WNV Lin1 and Lin2 were maintained at 20 \u00b0C or 25 \u00b0C and sampled at 7, 14, and 21 days post-infection (DPI) to assess infection, dissemination, and transmission potential. Differences between lineages were observed; at 20 \u00b0C, dissemination and transmission potential were greater for Lin1, whereas at 25 \u00b0C both lineages disseminated and showed transmission potential, with consistently higher rates for Lin2. These findings indicate that Cx. pipiens demonstrate transmission potential for both WNV Lin1 and Lin2 at temperatures representative of current northern European summers, with Lin2 showing greater transmission efficiency, particularly at 25 \u00b0C, while Lin1 was less efficient but remained active across a broader temperature range. These data highlight the potential risk of this virus in temperate areas currently free of this mosquito-borne virus.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms14092084","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T10:25:43Z","timestamp":1789986343000},"page":"2084","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Vector Competence for West Nile Virus Lineage 1 and 2: Temperature Dependency in Temperate Culex pipiens Mosquitoes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4296-0080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Estela","family":"Gonzalez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector-Borne Diseases Group, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6864-0317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Insiyah","family":"Parekh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector-Borne Diseases Group, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanam","family":"Thakkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector-Borne Diseases Group, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henry F.","family":"Ashpitel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology & Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed","family":"Salman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology & Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stuart","family":"Ackroyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology & Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5926-7541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Nunez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology & Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-4399-1940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Audra-Lynn","family":"Schlachter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pathology & Animal Sciences Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6106-9373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector-Borne Diseases Group, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"},{"name":"Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0068-4727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karen L.","family":"Mansfield","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vector-Borne Diseases Group, Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"WHO (2017). Global Vector Control Response 2017\u20132030, WHO."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, N., Fern\u00e1ndez de Marco, M., Giovannini, A., Ippoliti, C., Danzetta, M., Svartz, G., Erster, O., Groschup, M., Ziegler, U., and Mirazimi, A. (2018). Emerging Mosquito-Borne Threats and the Response from European and Eastern Mediterranean Countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15122775"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boualam, M.A., Pradines, B., Drancourt, M., and Barbieri, R. (2021). Malaria in Europe: A Historical Perspective. Front. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.691095"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110038","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2020.110038","article-title":"Environmental drivers, climate change and emergent diseases transmitted by mosquitoes and their vectors in southern Europe: A systematic review","volume":"191","author":"Brugueras","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2600049","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2026.31.4.2600049","article-title":"First detection of West Nile virus in Belgium through wild bird surveillance, Belgium, 2025","volume":"31","author":"Sohier","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziegler, U., Santos, P.D., Groschup, M.H., Hattendorf, C., Eiden, M., H\u00f6per, D., Eisermann, P., Keller, M., Michel, F., and Klopfleisch, R. (2020). West Nile Virus Epidemic in Germany Triggered by Epizootic Emergence, 2019. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12040448"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001704","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.40.2001704","article-title":"Detection of West Nile virus in a common whitethroat (Curruca communis) and Culex mosquitoes in the Netherlands, 2020","volume":"25","author":"Sikkema","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (2025). Surveillance of West Nile virus infections in humans and animals in Europe, monthly report\u2014Data submitted up to 3 December 2025. EFSA J., 23, e9835.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2025.9835"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2559588","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.59588","article-title":"Genomic Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in Paris","volume":"9","author":"Klitting","year":"2026","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500401","DOI":"10.2807\/1560-7917.ES.2025.30.28.2500401","article-title":"Detection of West Nile virus via retrospective mosquito arbovirus surveillance, United Kingdom, 2025","volume":"30","author":"Bruce","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drake, J.M., Bonsall, M., and Strand, M. (2020). Environmental Drivers of Vector-Borne Diseases. Population Biology of Vector-Borne Diseases, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198853244.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2025.07.001","article-title":"Decoding mosquito\u2013virus interactions: From classical genetics to multi-omics","volume":"34","author":"Couderc","year":"2026","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e96","DOI":"10.1038\/emi.2017.82","article-title":"Vector competence of European mosquitoes for west Nile virus","volume":"6","author":"Vogels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, L., Zhang, F., Oude Munnink, B.B., Munger, E., Sikkema, R.S., Pappa, S., Tsioka, K., Sinigaglia, A., Dal Molin, E., and Shih, B.B. (2024). West Nile virus spread in Europe: Phylogeographic pattern analysis and key drivers. PLoS Pathog., 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1011880"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fros, J.J., Geertsema, C., Vogels, C.B., Roosjen, P.P., Failloux, A.-B., Vlak, J.M., Koenraadt, C.J., Takken, W., and Pijlman, G.P. (2015). West Nile Virus: High Transmission Rate in North-Western European Mosquitoes Indicates Its Epidemic Potential and Warrants Increased Surveillance. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003956"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24001","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-64742-y","article-title":"Not all West Nile virus lineages behave alike: Dose-response differences between lineages 1 and 2","volume":"16","author":"Sauer","year":"2026","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1111\/mve.12164","article-title":"Culex pipiens and Stegomyia albopicta (=Aedes albopictus) populations as vectors for lineage 1 and 2 West Nile virus in Europe","volume":"30","author":"Brustolin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Med. Vet. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1677-0","article-title":"Vector competence of northern European Culex pipiens biotypes and hybrids for West Nile virus is differentially affected by temperature","volume":"9","author":"Vogels","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holicki, C.M., Ziegler, U., R\u0103ileanu, C., Kampen, H., Werner, D., Schulz, J., Silaghi, C., Groschup, M.H., and Vasi\u0107, A. (2020). West Nile Virus Lineage 2 Vector Competence of Indigenous Culex and Aedes Mosquitoes from Germany at Temperate Climate Conditions. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12050561"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jansen, S., Heitmann, A., Uusitalo, R., Korhonen, E.M., L\u00fchken, R., Kliemke, K., Lange, U., Helms, M., Kirjalainen, L., and Nyk\u00e4nen, R. (2023). Vector Competence of Northern European Culex pipiens Biotype pipiens and Culex torrentium to West Nile Virus and Sindbis Virus. Viruses, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/v15030592"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2016.04.001","article-title":"Culex pipiens and Culex torrentium populations from Central Europe are susceptible to West Nile virus infection","volume":"2","author":"Leggewie","year":"2016","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Met Office (2026, July 08). How Has Summer Warmth Changed in the UK?, Available online: https:\/\/www.metoffice.gov.uk\/blog\/2026\/how-has-summer-warmth-changed-in-the-uk."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3684","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.14738","article-title":"Evidence for overwintering and autochthonous transmission of Usutu virus to wild birds following its redetection in the United Kingdom","volume":"69","author":"Folly","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-018-2959-5","article-title":"Assessment of vector competence of UK mosquitoes for Usutu virus of African origin","volume":"11","author":"Mansfield","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1177\/104063871002200515","article-title":"Two new real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assays with unique target sites for the specific and sensitive detection of lineages 1 and 2 West Nile virus strains","volume":"22","author":"Eiden","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2012.11.031","article-title":"Detection of Schmallenberg virus serum neutralising antibodies","volume":"188","author":"Mansfield","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100664","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2023.100664","article-title":"Genomic epidemiology of West Nile virus in Europe","volume":"18","author":"Koch","year":"2024","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"2500276","article-title":"A multidisciplinary approach to the detection of and response to West Nile virus in the Netherlands between 2020 and 2023: Best practices, challenges and opportunities","volume":"31","author":"Braks","year":"2026","journal-title":"Eurosurveillance"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-45290-3","article-title":"Contribution of climate change to the spatial expansion of West Nile virus in Europe","volume":"15","author":"Erazo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2023.100509","article-title":"European projections of West Nile virus transmission under climate change scenarios","volume":"16","author":"Farooq","year":"2023","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0011144","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0011144","article-title":"Assessing vector competence of mosquitoes from northeastern France to West Nile virus and Usutu virus","volume":"16","author":"Martinet","year":"2023","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2012.07.041","article-title":"Pathogenesis of West Nile virus lineage 1 and 2 in experimentally infected large falcons","volume":"161","author":"Ziegler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"002186","article-title":"Spanish West Nile virus isolates of lineages 1 and 2 elicit different patterns of infection in red-legged partridges","volume":"106","author":"Llorente","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2014.06.005","article-title":"Experimental infection of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with West Nile virus strains of lineages 1 and 2","volume":"172","author":"Llorente","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2007.0266","article-title":"Vector competence of some French Culex and Aedes mosquitoes for West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Balenghien","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-015-1067-z","article-title":"Experimental studies on comparison of the vector competence of four Italian Culex pipiens populations for West Nile virus","volume":"8","author":"Fortuna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vaughan, J.A., Newman, R.A., and Turell, M.J. (2022). Bird species define the relationship between West Nile viremia and infectiousness to Culex pipiens mosquitoes. PLoS Neglected Trop. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0010835"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lima-Camara, T.N., Bruno, R.V., Luz, P.M., Castro, M.G., Louren\u00e7o-de-Oliveira, R., Sorgine, M.H.F., and Peixoto, A.A. (2011). Dengue Infection Increases the Locomotor Activity of Aedes aegypti Females. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0017690"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3598","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.164186","article-title":"Virus interferes with host-seeking behaviour of mosquito","volume":"220","author":"Vogels","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-025-06936-3","article-title":"Evidence of much wider distribution of the potential West Nile virus vector, Culex modestus, in the UK","volume":"18","author":"Abbott","year":"2025","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"UK Health Security Agency (2026, May 21). One Health Vector-Borne Disease (VBD) Surveillance, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.uk\/guidance\/one-health-vector-borne-disease-surveillance."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/9\/2084\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T10:42:53Z","timestamp":1789987373000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/14\/9\/2084"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms14092084"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms14092084","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]]}}}