{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T17:31:23Z","timestamp":1791653483281,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,16]],"date-time":"2020-01-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1579132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rapid and reliable identification of Bacillus anthracis is of great importance, especially in the event of suspected deliberate release of anthrax spores. However, the identification of B. anthracis is challenging due to its high similarity to closely related species. Since Amerithrax in 2001, a lot of effort has been made to develop rapid methods for detection and identification of this microorganism with special focus on easy-to-perform rapid tests for first-line responders. This article presents an overview of the evolution of B. anthracis identification methods from the time of the first description of the microorganism until the present day.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8010125","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]],"date-time":"2020-01-17T07:39:02Z","timestamp":1579246742000},"page":"125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Detection and Identification of Bacillus anthracis: From Conventional to Molecular Microbiology Methods"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2774-0941","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra A.","family":"Zasada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sera and Vaccines Evaluation, National Institute of Public Health\u2014National Institute of Hygiene, Chocimska 24, 00-791 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2009.06.004","article-title":"Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: A short history of anthrax","volume":"30","author":"Schwartz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Koehler, T.M. (2002). Introduction: Anthrax history, Disease and Ecology. Anthrax, Springer. Chapter 1.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-05767-4"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-0691.2002.00500.x","article-title":"Anthrax in Europe: Its epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and role in bioterrorism","volume":"8","author":"Schmid","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microb. Infect."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Turnbull, P.C.B. (1998). Guidelines for the Surveillance and Control of Anthrax in Human and Animals, World Health Organization. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"1","article-title":"Historical data analysis of hospital discharges related to the Amerithrax attack in Florida","volume":"13","author":"Burke","year":"2016","journal-title":"Perspect. Health Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Smith, N.R., Gordon, R.E., and Clark, F.E. (1946). Aerobic Mesophilic Sporeforming Bacteria (No. 559)."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3525","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.64.9.3525-3529.1998","article-title":"Discrimination of psychrotrophic and mesophilic strains of the Bacillus cereus group by PCR targeting of major cold shock protein genes","volume":"64","author":"Francis","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-48-4-1373","article-title":"Bacillus weihenstephanensis sp. nov. is a new psychrotolerant species of the Bacillus cereus group","volume":"48","author":"Lechner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-143-8-2537","article-title":"Diversity and differential distribution of IS231, IS232 and IS240 among Bacillus cereus, Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus mycoides","volume":"143","author":"Leonard","year":"1997","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.162.2.543-550.1985","article-title":"Mating system for transfer of plasmids among Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis","volume":"162","author":"Battisti","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8449","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0402414101","article-title":"Identification of anthrax toxin genes in a Bacillus cereus associated with an illness resembling inhalation anthrax","volume":"101","author":"Hoffmaster","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3352","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00561-06","article-title":"Characterization of Bacillus cereus isolates associated with fatal pneumonias: Strains are closely related to Bacillus anthracis and harbor B. anthracis virulence genes","volume":"44","author":"Hoffmaster","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klee, S.R., Brzuszkiewicz, E.B., Nattermann, H., Br\u00fcggemann, H., Dupke, S., Wollherr, A., Franz, T., Pauli, G., Appel, B., and Liebl, W. (2010). The genome of a Bacillus isolate causing anthrax in chimpanzees combines chromosomal properties of B. cereus with B. anthracis virulence plasmids. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0010986"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, D.B., Yang, R., Zhang, Z.P., Bi, L.J., You, X.Y., Wei, H.P., Zhou, Y.F., Yu, Z., and Zhang, X.E. (2009). Detection of B. anthracis spores and vegetative cells with the same monoclonal antibodies. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0007810"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2008.09.004","article-title":"Evaluation of five commercial nucleic acid extraction kits for their ability to inactivate Bacillus anthracis spores and comparison of DNA yields from spores and spiked environmental samples","volume":"76","author":"Dauphin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2008.10.009","article-title":"A simple method for the rapid removal of Bacillus anthracis spores from DNA preparations","volume":"76","author":"Dauphin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4780","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.9.4780-4788.2005","article-title":"Production and validation of the use of gamma phage for identification of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"43","author":"Abshire","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6742","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.187.19.6742-6749.2005","article-title":"Identification of the Bacillus anthracis gamma phage receptor","volume":"187","author":"Davison","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0908.030205","article-title":"Nonhemolytic, nonmotile gram-positive rods indicative of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"9","author":"Dib","year":"2003","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4336","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.9.4336-4341.2005","article-title":"Use of two selective media and a broth motility test can aid in identification or exclusion of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"43","author":"Luna","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.1999.00876.x","article-title":"Definitive identification of Bacillus anthracis\u2014A review","volume":"87","author":"Turnbull","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)92395-V","article-title":"Cutaneous anthrax due to penicillin-resistant Bacillus anthracis transmitted by an insect bite","volume":"340","author":"Bradaric","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4873","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.12.4873-4877.2004","article-title":"\u03b2-lactamase gene expression in a penicillin-resistant Bacillus anthracis strain","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00670","DOI":"10.1128\/MRA.00670-19","article-title":"Complete genome sequences of penicillin-resistant Bacillus anthracis strain PCr, isolated from bone powder","volume":"8","author":"Okutani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microbiol. Resour. Announc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.92.3.784-786.1966","article-title":"Selective medium for Bacillus anthracis","volume":"92","author":"Knisely","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.syapm.2005.05.008","article-title":"Growth characteristics of Bacillus anthracis compared to other Bacillus spp. on the selective nutrient media Anthrax Blood Agar and Cereus Ident Agar","volume":"29","author":"Tomaso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Syst. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2008.02375.x","article-title":"Evaluation of two selective media for the isolation of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"47","author":"Marston","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.21.3.161-166.1931","article-title":"A bacteriophage for B. antharcis","volume":"21","author":"Cowles","year":"1931","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022172400015412","article-title":"Studies on lysogenic bacillus strain. I. A bacteriophage specific for B. anthracis","volume":"50","author":"McCloy","year":"1951","journal-title":"J. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/96.1.34","article-title":"Specific identification of Bacillus anthracis by means of a variant bacteriophage","volume":"96","author":"Brown","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"OIE World Organisation for Animal Health (2019, November 05). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.oie.int\/en\/international-standard-setting\/terrestrial-manual\/access-online\/."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolton, C.B., Podnecky, N.L., Shadomy, S.V., Gee, J.E., and Hoffmaster, A.R. (2017). Bacillus anthracis gamma phage lysis among soil bacteria: An update on test specificity. BMC Res. Notes, 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-017-2919-8"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"494","article-title":"Die bakterielle Differentialdiagnose des Anthrax mittels eines neuen spezifischen Tests (Perl-schnurtest)","volume":"159","author":"Jensen","year":"1953","journal-title":"Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/165.6.1145","article-title":"Detection of spores of Bacillus anthracis using the polymerase chain reaction","volume":"165","author":"Carl","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.31.3.547-551.1993","article-title":"Direct detection of Bacillus anthracis DNA in animals by polymerase chain reaction","volume":"31","author":"Makino","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.52.2.454-458.1986","article-title":"Immunization studies with attenuated strains of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"52","author":"Ivins","year":"1986","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1992.tb05181.x","article-title":"Bacillus anthracis but not always anthrax","volume":"72","author":"Turnbull","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2627","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.66.6.2627-2630.2000","article-title":"Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis\u2013One species on the basic of genetic evidence","volume":"66","author":"Helgason","year":"2000","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10482-016-0767-5","article-title":"Virulence plasmid stability in environmentally occurring Bacillus anthracis from North East Turkey","volume":"110","author":"Cooper","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antonie Leeuwenhoek"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.1996.tb00088.x","article-title":"Isolation of a specific chromosomic DNA sequence of Bacillus anthracis and its possible use in diagnosis","volume":"15","author":"Patra","year":"1996","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2672.1999.00874.x","article-title":"The Ba813 chromosomal DNA sequence effectively traces the whole Bacillus anthracis community","volume":"87","author":"Ramisse","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2004.03.015","article-title":"Identification of Bacillus anthracis by multiprobe microarray hybridization","volume":"49","author":"Volokhov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3845-7","article-title":"Rapid detection methods for Bacillus anthracis in environmental samples: A review","volume":"93","author":"Irenge","year":"2012","journal-title":"App. Microbiol. Boitechnol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.178.2.377-384.1996","article-title":"Identification of a region of genetic variability among Bacillus anthracis strains and related species","volume":"178","author":"Andersen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.63.4.1400-1405.1997","article-title":"Characterization of the variable-number tandem repeats in vrrA from different Bacillus anthracis isolates","volume":"63","author":"Jackson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.67.8.3720-3727.2001","article-title":"Utilization of the rpoB gene as a specific chromosomal marker for real-time PCR detection of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"67","author":"Qi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1606","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.4.1606-1607.2006","article-title":"Some Bacillus thuringiensis strains share rpoB nucleotide polymorpsims also present in Bacillus anthracis","volume":"44","author":"Zasada","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.65.3.1298-1303.1999","article-title":"A randomly amplified polymorphic DNA marker specific for the Bacillus cereus group is diagnostic for Bacillus anthracis","volume":"65","author":"Daffonchio","year":"1999","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2007.00741.x","article-title":"Specific Bacillus anthracis identification by a plcR-targeted restriction site insertion-PCR (RSI-PCR) assay","volume":"272","author":"Zasada","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.4.1995-1997.2005","article-title":"Use of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the plcR gene for specific identification of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"43","author":"Easterday","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2010.03178.x","article-title":"Rapid field detection assays for Bacillus anthracis, Brucella spp., Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis","volume":"17","author":"Matero","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1089\/hs.2016.0043","article-title":"Evaluation of PCR systems for field screening of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"15","author":"Ozanich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Secur."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.12107","article-title":"Evaluation of the FilmArray\u00ae system for detection of Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis","volume":"114","author":"Seiner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.5740\/jaoacint.CS2012-06","article-title":"RAZOR EX Anthrax Air Detection System for detection of Bacillus anthracis spores from aerosol collection samples: Collaborative study","volume":"96","author":"Hadfield","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1007\/s10529-007-9472-9","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid detection of Bacillus anthracis spores","volume":"29","author":"Qiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1947","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.2009.04379.x","article-title":"A simple and sensitive method for detection of Bacillus anthracis by loop-mediated isothermal amplification","volume":"107","author":"Kurosaki","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2018.09.008","article-title":"Isothermal DNA amplification combined with lateral flow dipsticks for detection of biothreat agents","volume":"560","author":"Zasada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02704-12","article-title":"Development of a panel of recombinase polymerase amplification assays for detection of biothreat agents","volume":"51","author":"Euler","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00506","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00506-18","article-title":"Sensitive and specific recombinase polymerase amplification assays for fast screening, detection, and identification of Bacillus anthracis in a field setting","volume":"84","author":"Bentahir","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.2144\/000114253","article-title":"Visual detection of isothermal nucleic acid amplification using pH-sensitive dyes","volume":"58","author":"Tanner","year":"2015","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.2144\/000113072","article-title":"Colorimetric detection of loop-mediated isothermal amplification reaction by using hydroxyl naphthol blue","volume":"46","author":"Goto","year":"2009","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zasada, A.A., Wiatrzyk, A., Czajka, U., Brodzik, K., Formi\u0144ska, K., Mosiej, E., Prygiel, M., Krysztopa-Grzybowska, K., and Wdowiak, K. (2020). Application of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification combined with colorimetric and lateral flow dipstick visualization as the potential point-of-care testing for diphtheria. BMC Infect. Dis., in press.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.2.14953\/v4"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1728","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00235-09","article-title":"Development of antibodies against anthrose tetrasaccharide for specific detection of Bacillus anthracis spores","volume":"16","author":"Kuehn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00205-10","article-title":"Anthrax spore detection by a luminex assay based on monoclonal antibodies that recognize anthrose-containing oligosaccharides","volume":"17","author":"Tamborrini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1089\/hs.2019.0038","article-title":"Rapid presumptive identification of Bacillus anthracis isolates using the Tetracore RedLine Alert\u2122 test","volume":"17","author":"Pillai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Health Secur."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.05027-0","article-title":"Identification of Bacillus anthracis by a simple protective antigen-specific mAb dot-ELISA","volume":"52","author":"Sastry","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01479","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01479-17","article-title":"Simultaneous immunodetection of anthrax, plague, and tularemia from blood cultures by use of multiplexed suspension arrays","volume":"56","author":"Mechaly","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-7012(03)00030-7","article-title":"Discovery of phage display peptide ligands for species-specific detection of Bacillus spores","volume":"53","author":"Turnbough","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0320(20001201)41:4%3C237::AID-CYTO1%3E3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"The flow cytometry of Bacillus anthracis spores revisited","volume":"41","author":"Stopa","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cytometry"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2330","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.4.2330-2339.2003","article-title":"Detection of frequency resonance energy transfer pair on double-labeled microsphere and Bacillus anthracis spores by flow cytometry","volume":"69","author":"Zahavy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5179","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-016-9602-0","article-title":"An internal standard approach for homogeneous TR-FRET immunoassays facilitates the detection of bacteria, biomarkers, and toxins in complex matrices","volume":"408","author":"Cohen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1759(98)00047-7","article-title":"Comparative studies of magnetic particle-based solid phase fluorogenic and electrochemiluminescent immunoassay","volume":"218","author":"Yu","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.12392","article-title":"Comparison of eleven commercially available rapid tests for detection of Bacillus anthracis, Francisella tularensis and Yersinia pestis","volume":"60","author":"Zasada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1111\/lam.13134","article-title":"Detection of Bacillus anthracis in animal tissues using InBios active anthrax detect rapid test lateral flow immunoassay","volume":"68","author":"Kolton","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-015-1625-z","article-title":"Advances in anthrax detection: Overview of bioprobes and biosensors","volume":"176","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.09.067","article-title":"Detection of Bacillus anthracis spores by super-paramagnetic lateral-flow immunoassays based on \u201cRoad Closure\u201d","volume":"67","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1089\/hs.2016.0044","article-title":"Evaluation of immunoassays and general biological indicator tests for field screening of Bacillus anthracis and ricin","volume":"15","author":"Bartholomew","year":"2017","journal-title":"Health Secur."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Israeli, M., Rotem, S., Elia, U., Bar-Haim, E., Cohen, O., and Chitlaru, T. (2016). A simple luminescent adenylate-cyclase functional assay for evaluation of Bacillus anthracis edema factor activity. Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8080243"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biologicals.2016.09.012","article-title":"Validation of high throughput screening of human sera for detection of anti-PA IgG by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) as an emergency response to an anthrax incident","volume":"45","author":"Semenova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biologicals"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gates-Hollingsworth, M.A., Perry, M.R., Chen, H., Needham, J., Houghton, R.L., Raychaudhuri, S., Hubbard, M.A., and Kozel, T.R. (2015). Immunoassay for capsular antigen of Bacillus anthracis enables rapid diagnosis in a rabbit model of inhalational anthrax. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126304"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00598-12","article-title":"Serodiagnosis of human cutaneous anthrax in India using an indirect anti-lethal factor IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay","volume":"20","author":"Ghosh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2841","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.02029-06","article-title":"Identification of in vivo-expressed immunogenic proteins by serological proteome analysis of the Bacillus anthracis secretome","volume":"75","author":"Chitlaru","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bar-Haim, E., Rotem, S., Elia, U., Bercovich-Kinori, A., Israeli, M., Cohen-Gihon, I., Israeli, O., Erez, N., Achdout, H., and Zauberman, A. (2019). Early diagnosis of pathogen infection by cell-based activation immunoassay. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8090952"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6157","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00766-09","article-title":"Novel and unique diagnostic biomarkers for Bacillus anthracis infection","volume":"75","author":"Chitlaru","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2005.12.020","article-title":"Biosensor technology for detecting biological warfare agents: Recent progress and future trends","volume":"559","author":"Gooding","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)15882-2","article-title":"Selective and sensitive electrochemical DNA biosensor for the detection of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"11","author":"Raveendran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B187","DOI":"10.1149\/2.0551805jes","article-title":"Electrochemical detection of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen gene using DNA biosensor based on stem\u2212loop probe","volume":"165","author":"Zacharczuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3398","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.01.010","article-title":"DNA probe functionalized QCM biosensor based on gold nanoparticle amplification for Bacillus anthracis detection","volume":"26","author":"Hao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127006","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3662460","article-title":"Detection of anthrax lef with DNA-based photonic crystal sensors","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7561","DOI":"10.1021\/ac900834e","article-title":"Identification and quantitation of Bacillus globigii using metal enhanced electrochemical detection and capillary biosensor","volume":"81","author":"Mwilu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1039\/b704579d","article-title":"In situ detection of Bacillus anthracis spores using fully submersible, self-exciting, self-sensing PMN-PT\/Sn piezoelectric microcantilevers","volume":"132","author":"McGovern","year":"2007","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waller, D.F., Hew, B.E., Holdaway, C., Jen, M., and Peckham, G.D. (2016). Rapid detection of Bacillus anthracis spores using immunomagnetic separation and amperometry. Biosensors, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/bios6040061"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2008.07.071","article-title":"Rapid detection of Bacillus anthracis using monoclonal antibody functionalized QCM sensor","volume":"24","author":"Hao","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2018.11.017","article-title":"A label-free impedimetric aptasensor for the detection of Bacillus anthracis spore simulant","volume":"126","author":"Mazzaracchio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(99)00028-7","article-title":"In vitro selection of DNA aptamers to anthrax spores with electrochemiluminescence detection","volume":"14","author":"Bruno","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8424","DOI":"10.1021\/ja072744j","article-title":"Colorimetric detection of anthrax DNA with a peptide nucleic acid sandwich-hybridization assay","volume":"129","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7229","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00857-09","article-title":"Identification of Bacillus anthracis by using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry and artificial neural networks","volume":"75","author":"Lasch","year":"2009","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5372","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01724-13","article-title":"Rapid identification of Bacillus anthracis spores in suspicious powder samples by using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)","volume":"79","author":"Dybwad","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01900","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01900-17","article-title":"Improved discrimination of Bacillus anthracis from closely related species in the Bacillus cereus Sensu Lato group based on Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry","volume":"56","author":"Pauker","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1002\/rcm.491","article-title":"Detection of specific Bacillus anthracis spore biomarkers by matrix-assisted laser desorption\/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry","volume":"15","author":"Elhanany","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.33073\/pjm-2013-062","article-title":"Fast identification of Yersinia pestis, Bacillus anthracis and Francisella tularensis based on conventional PCR","volume":"62","author":"Zasada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pol. J. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/8\/1\/125\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:05:17Z","timestamp":1760364317000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/8\/1\/125"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,16]]},"references-count":101,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms8010125"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms8010125","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,16]]}}}