{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T05:11:50Z","timestamp":1790745110571,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,26]],"date-time":"2020-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1590451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hugh-Jones and Blackburn and Turnbull\u2019s collective World Health Organization (WHO) report did literature reviews of the theories and the bases for causes of anthrax outbreaks. Both comment on an often-mentioned suspicion that, even though unproven, latent infections are likely involved. Hugh-Jones suggested Gainer do an updated review of our present-day knowledge of latent infections, which was the basis for Gainer\u2019s talk at the Biology of Anthrax Conference in Bari, Italy 2019. At the Conference Gainer met Vergnaud who presented anthrax genome studies that implied that the disease might have spread throughout Asia and from Europe to North America in a short time span of three or four centuries. Vergnaud wondered if latent infections might have played a role in the process. Several other presenters at the Conference also mentioned results that might suggest the existence of latent infections. Vergnaud subsequently looked into some of the old French literature about related observations, results, and discussions of early Pasteur vaccine usage (late 1800\u2032s) and found mentions of suspected latent infections. The first part of the paper is a focused summary and interpretation of Hugh-Jones and Blackburn\u2019s and Turnbull\u2019s reviews specifically looking for suggestions of latent infections, a few additional studies with slightly different approaches, and several mentions made of presentations and posters at the Conference in Italy. In general, many different investigators in different areas and aspects of the anthrax study at the Conference found reasons to suspect the existence of latent infections. The authors conclude that the affected species most studied, including Homo sapiens, provide circumstantial evidence of latent infections and modified host resistance. The last part of the review explores the research needed to prove or disprove the existence of latent infections.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8060800","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,27]],"date-time":"2020-05-27T05:35:52Z","timestamp":1590557752000},"page":"800","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["A Review of Arguments for the Existence of Latent Infections of Bacillus anthracis, and Research Needed to Understand Their Role in the Outbreaks of Anthrax"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Robert S.","family":"Gainer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Herb\u2019s Institute, Box 1058, Hanna, AB T0J 1P0, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0913-194X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gilles","family":"Vergnaud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, 91198 Gif-Sur-Yvette, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin E.","family":"Hugh-Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, College of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803-5705, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2009.08.003","article-title":"The ecology of Bacillus anthracis","volume":"30","author":"Blackburn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. 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