{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T20:32:07Z","timestamp":1779309127983,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":152,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,17]],"date-time":"2020-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1594944000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Poliomyelitis Research Foundation and University of Cape Town Science Faculty PhD fellowship","award":["grant number: 19\/70"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["grant number: 19\/70"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001323","name":"Poliomyelitis Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["grant numbers: 113446 and 120407"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["grant numbers: 113446 and 120407"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001323","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007112","name":"University of Cape Town","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019 Enabling Grant Seeker Excellence Award"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019 Enabling Grant Seeker Excellence Award"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007112","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne parasitic disease that has been neglected in priority for control and eradication of malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV\/AIDS. Collectively, over one seventh of the world\u2019s population is at risk of being infected with 0.7\u20131.2 million new infections reported annually. Clinical manifestations range from self-healing cutaneous lesions to fatal visceral disease. The first anti-leishmanial drugs were introduced in the 1950\u2032s and, despite several shortcomings, remain the mainstay for treatment. Regardless of this and the steady increase in infections over the years, particularly among populations of low economic status, research on leishmaniasis remains under funded. This review looks at the drugs currently in clinical use and how they interact with the host immune response. Employing chemoimmunotherapeutic approaches may be one viable alternative to improve the efficacy of novel\/existing drugs and extend their lifespan in clinical use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071069","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,20]],"date-time":"2020-07-20T06:08:17Z","timestamp":1595225297000},"page":"1069","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Can We Harness Immune Responses to Improve Drug Treatment in Leishmaniasis?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0879-344X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raphael Taiwo","family":"Aruleba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2507-1844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katharine C.","family":"Carter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0NR, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8881-6781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frank","family":"Brombacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town Component, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"},{"name":"Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IDM), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) on Immunology of Infectious Diseases, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IDM), University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7758-521X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramona","family":"Hurdayal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"},{"name":"International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Cape Town Component, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"},{"name":"Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IDM), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) on Immunology of Infectious Diseases, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"},{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine (IDM), University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7925, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1561","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67629-5","article-title":"Advances in Leishmaniasis","volume":"366","author":"Murray","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akhoundi, M., Kuhls, K., Cannet, A., Votypka, J., Marty, P., Delaunay, P., and Sereno, D. 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