{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T20:32:11Z","timestamp":1785529931126,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1601337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["13404394"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["13404394"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, Brucella melitensis infection in sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) was investigated on two wildlife ranches in South Africa over a 12-year period in order to determine the origin of the outbreaks and the role of livestock in maintaining the disease. Retrospective data were obtained from farm records and interviews as well as samples tested from different disease scenarios and clinical settings. On one ranch, 10 of 74 sable tested seropositive for B. melitensis in 2004 but were certified clear of infection after no further brucellosis cases were detected following repeated serological tests and culling over a five-year period. Recrudescence occurred in 2013 (7 of 187 brucellosis positives) and in 2014 (one positive), with persistent, latent infection being the most reasonable explanation. In a second case study, linked to the first one through a common vendor, 15 of 80 sable tested positive in 2016, some five years after the acquisition of the animals from a putative source. Brucella melitensis biovar 1 and\/or 3 were isolated from each outbreak on both ranches. Both outbreaks resulted in substantial losses for the owners, arising from testing and culling and significant resource expenditure by the state. The study identified the diagnostic challenges for identifying and resolving disease outbreaks in wildlife, the persistence of B. melitensis in sable, the risks associated with animal movements, and the need for a wildlife-sensitive disease control scheme. Although the actual source of infection could not be identified, the investigation points away from local livestock as a source of ongoing infection while the persistent infection is consistent with the disease circulating within small, ranched populations and being spread through the keeping and trading of high-value animals. The implications of the study findings to disease control in wildlife are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8101494","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]],"date-time":"2020-09-29T08:43:27Z","timestamp":1601369007000},"page":"1494","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Investigation of Brucella melitensis in Sable Antelope (Hippotragus niger) in South Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Barbara","family":"Glover","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Malcolm","family":"Macfarlane","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Former Chief State Veterinarian of the Graaff Reinet State Vet Area, Eastern Cape 6280, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roy","family":"Bengis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Former Chief State Veterinarian, Kruger National Park 1350, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacques","family":"O'Dell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5940-6799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johan","family":"Steyl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"},{"name":"Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0028, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3577-1273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Henriette","family":"van Heerden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7391-1898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darrell","family":"Abernethy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Veterinary Wildlife Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, Pretoria 0110, South Africa"},{"name":"Aberystwyth School of Veterinary Science, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, Wales SY23 3FL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"e510","article-title":"The economic impact of trophy hunting in the South African wildlife industry","volume":"16","author":"Saayman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Tourism Organization (2015). Towards Measuring the Economic Value of Wildlife Watching Tourism in Africa: Briefing Paper, World Tourism Organization."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Taylor, W., Lindsey, P., and Davies-Mostert, H. (2016). An Assessment of the Economic, Social and Conservation Value of the Wildlife Ranching Industry and its Potential to Support the Green Economy in South Africa, Endangered Wildlife Trust."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Minnaar, P.C. (2010). The Western Zambian Sable: Giant or no Giant?, Wildlife Producers Association of Zambia."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"113","article-title":"Longevity of captive mammals","volume":"52","author":"Jones","year":"1982","journal-title":"Zool. Gart."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Estes, R. (1993). The Safari Companion: A Guide to Watching African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, and Primates, Chelsea Green Publishing."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"745","article-title":"The presence of Brucella melitensis infection in sheep in the Transvaal","volume":"64","year":"1965","journal-title":"Bull. Off. Int. Epizoot."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"143","article-title":"The isolation and serology of Brucella melitensis in a flock of goats in central RSA","volume":"57","author":"Ribeiro","year":"1990","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"183","article-title":"Brucella melitensis biotype 1 outbreak in goats in northern KwaZulu-Natal","volume":"63","author":"Reichel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Brucellosis Activities Reported by CCS Veterinarians","volume":"Volume 10","author":"Roberts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiology Report"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (2016). Bovine Brucellosis Manual, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) (1988). Staatskoerant. Bovine Brucellosis Scheme, DAFF."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (2018). Disease Reporting Summaries, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (2016). Animal Disease Reporting Manual, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"175","article-title":"Brucellosis in Rhodesian Wildlife","volume":"43","author":"Condy","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.32.1.2180","article-title":"Brucellosis in terrestrial wildlife","volume":"32","author":"Godfroid","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Kriek, N. (2020, June 17). Brucella melitensis. African Wildlife Diseases. Available online: http:\/\/awp.eduwikis.co.za\/index.php\/Brucella_melitensis."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Janse van Rensburg, D.D., Kriek, N.P.J., O\u2019Dell, J.H., and Steyl, J.C.A. (2016, January 26\u201328). Brucella melitensis biovar 3 infection in Sable Antelope (Hippotragus Niger) in South Africa. Proceedings of the Southern African Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2018). A Field Manual for Animal Disease Outbreak Investigation and Management, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Microsoft Corporation (2016). Microsoft Excel, Microsoft. [64-bit ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.4102\/ojvr.v87i1.1792","article-title":"Investigating selective media for optimal isolation of Brucella spp. in South Africa","volume":"87","author":"Ledwaba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00402562","article-title":"Techniques for the brucellosis laboratory","volume":"13","author":"Edelsten","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2009). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, OIE."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12356","article-title":"Context-dependent survival, fecundity and predicted population-level consequences of brucellosis in African buffalo","volume":"84","author":"Gorsich","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.32.1.2191","article-title":"Pathogenesis and pathobiology of brucellosis in wildlife","volume":"32","author":"Rhyan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"119","article-title":"The existing and potential importance of brucellosis and tuberculosis in canadian wildlife: A review","volume":"27","author":"Tessaro","year":"1986","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.21.2.1333","article-title":"Brucellosis in wildlife","volume":"21","author":"Godfroid","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2009.131517","article-title":"Reemergence of Brucella melitensis in wildlife, France","volume":"20","author":"Hars","year":"2014","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Anon (2020, July 13). Wildlife Ranching. Agribook Digital., Available online: https:\/\/agribook.co.za\/livestock\/wildlife-ranching\/."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Chiyangwa, T. (2018). Financial Implications of Converting from Livestock to Game Farming in the Karoo Region, South Africa, Stellenbosch University."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Anon (2013). Wildlife Ranching in Perspective, African Indaba."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-011-9890-5","article-title":"Survey of brucellosis at the wildlife-livestock interface on the Zimbabwean side of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area","volume":"44","author":"Gomo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"225","article-title":"Brucellosis in Wildlife and Livestock of West Central Utah","volume":"146","author":"Thorpe","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.94.24.559","article-title":"Brucellosis in wildlife","volume":"94","author":"McDiarmid","year":"1974","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-21.2.132","article-title":"Brucella abortus in wildlife on selected cattle farms in Alabama","volume":"21","author":"Schnurrenberger","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Coleman, A. (2019, November 11). Commercial buffalo breeding: \u2018It\u2019s not just for the rich.\u2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.farmersweekly.co.za\/animals\/game-and-wildlife\/commercial-buffalo-breeding-not-just-rich\/."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.k2450","article-title":"Isolation of Brucella melitensis from cattle in South Africa","volume":"182","author":"Kolo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (2016). Brucella Melitensis: A forgotten Disease?, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-34.2.400","article-title":"Isolation of Brucella melitensis from alpine ibex","volume":"34","author":"Ferroglio","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Wildl. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mu\u00f1oz, P.M., Boadella, M., Arnal, M., de Miguel, M.J., Revilla, M., Mart\u00ednez, D., Vicente, J., Acevedo, P., Oleaga, A., and Ruiz-Fons, F. (2010). Spatial distribution and risk factors of Brucellosis in Iberian wild ungulates. BMC Infect. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-10-46"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"ACF (2019, July 29). South Africa: Twenty Zambian Sable Antelope Die in Pens. Available online: https:\/\/africanconservation.org\/south-africa-twenty-zambian-sable-antelope-die-in-pens-2\/."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Michler, I. (2020, July 22). Sable Shenanigans: How Zambia\u2019s Sable Population is Falling Prey to Unscrupulous Traders; Ecologist. Available online: https:\/\/theecologist.org\/2012\/feb\/15\/sable-shenanigans-how-zambias-sable-population-falling-prey-unscrupulous-traders."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD) (2015). The Import Policy on the Importation of Sable Antelope from Zambia, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Evan, S. (2014). Import Risk Analysis: Sable Antelope from Zambia into South Africa, DALRRD."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"WAHIS, I. (2019, December 30). Detailed Country (IES) Disease Incidence. Available online: https:\/\/www.oie.int\/wahis_2\/public\/wahid.php\/Diseaseinformation\/statusdetail."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Gerhard, U. (2015). South Africans Caught Smuggling Sable Antelope. Farmer\u2019s Weekly, Caxton Magazines Digital."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.103.8.149","article-title":"The persistence of Brucella abortus infection in calves: A retrospective study of heavily infected herds","volume":"103","author":"Wilesmith","year":"1978","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01065","article-title":"High Shedding Potential and Significant Individual Heterogeneity in Naturally-Infected Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) with Brucella melitensis","volume":"9","author":"Lambert","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C\u00e1rdenas, L., Pe\u00f1a, M., Melo, O., and Casal, J. (2019). Risk factors for new bovine brucellosis infections in Colombian herds. BMC Vet. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-1825-9"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/8\/10\/1494\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:14:39Z","timestamp":1760177679000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/8\/10\/1494"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,10]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms8101494"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms8101494","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9,29]]}}}