{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T21:39:38Z","timestamp":1789421978328,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]],"date-time":"2021-04-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617753600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lassa fever causes an approximate 5000 to 10,000 deaths annually in West Africa and cases have been imported into Europe and the Americas, challenging public health. Although Lassa virus was first described over 5 decades ago in 1969, no treatments or vaccines have been approved to treat or prevent infection. In this review, we discuss current therapeutics in the development pipeline for the treatment of Lassa fever, focusing on those that have been evaluated in humans or animal models. Several treatments, including the antiviral favipiravir and a human monoclonal antibody cocktail, have shown efficacy in preclinical rodent and non-human primate animal models and have potential for use in clinical settings. Movement of the promising preclinical treatment options for Lassa fever into clinical trials is critical to continue addressing this neglected tropical disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9040772","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]],"date-time":"2021-04-07T11:31:59Z","timestamp":1617795119000},"page":"772","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Lassa Virus Treatment Options"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Frederick","family":"Hansen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0124-4061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael A.","family":"Jarvis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Vaccine Group Ltd., University of Plymouth, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9448-8227","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heinz","family":"Feldmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kyle","family":"Rosenke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Hamilton, MT 59840, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1970.19.670","article-title":"Lassa fever, a new virus disease of man from West Africa. I. Clinical description and pathological findings","volume":"19","author":"Frame","year":"1970","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2031","DOI":"10.3390\/v4102031","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa fever","volume":"4","author":"Yun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Viruses"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3228","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01711-08","article-title":"Characterization of Lassa virus cell entry and neutralization with Lassa virus pseudoparticles","volume":"83","author":"Cosset","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1792","article-title":"Arenaviridae: The viruses and their replication","volume":"2","author":"Buchmeier","year":"2007","journal-title":"Fields Virol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1111\/bij.12013","article-title":"A mitochondrial phylogeographic scenario for the most widespread African rodent, Mastomys natalensis","volume":"108","author":"Leirs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. J. Linn. Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25280","DOI":"10.1038\/srep25280","article-title":"New Hosts of The Lassa Virus","volume":"6","author":"Olayemi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2020, January 01). Lassa Fever, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/vhf\/lassa\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.2307\/1382739","article-title":"Rodent-Borne Hemorrhagic-Fever Viruses\u2014A Special Risk for Mammalogists","volume":"76","author":"Childs","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.327.7426.1271","article-title":"Lassa fever: Epidemiology, clinical features, and social consequences","volume":"327","author":"Richmond","year":"2003","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20180268","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2018.0268","article-title":"Quantifying the seasonal drivers of transmission for Lassa fever in Nigeria","volume":"374","author":"Akhmetzhanov","year":"2019","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.03.030","article-title":"A cluster of nosocomial Lassa fever cases in a tertiary health facility in Nigeria: Description and lessons learned, 2018","volume":"83","author":"Ipadeola","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2020, September 16). Lassa Fever. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/lassa-fever."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.311.7009.857","article-title":"Review of cases of nosocomial Lassa fever in Nigeria: The high price of poor medical practice","volume":"311","author":"Tomori","year":"1995","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"Lassa fever in West African sub-region: An overview","volume":"44","author":"Ogbu","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vector Borne Dis."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1205.050052","article-title":"Historical Lassa fever reports and 30-year clinical update","volume":"12","author":"Macher","year":"2006","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2019.07.003","article-title":"Antibody therapy for Lassa fever","volume":"37","author":"Cross","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(18)30121-X","article-title":"Clinical and laboratory predictors of Lassa fever outcome in a dedicated treatment facility in Nigeria: A retrospective, observational cohort study","volume":"18","author":"Okokhere","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2502.180836","article-title":"Lassa Fever in Travelers from West Africa, 1969\u20132016","volume":"25","author":"Kofman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2019.07.005","article-title":"Animal models for Lassa virus infection","volume":"37","author":"Feldmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sattler, R.A., Paessler, S., Ly, H., and Huang, C. (2020). Animal Models of Lassa Fever. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9030197"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"523","article-title":"Comparative pathology of Lassa virus infection in monkeys, guinea-pigs, and Mastomys natalensis","volume":"52","author":"Walker","year":"1975","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.37.2.771-778.1982","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"37","author":"Jahrling","year":"1982","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985816677153","article-title":"Temporal Progression of Lesions in Guinea Pigs Infected With Lassa Virus","volume":"54","author":"Bell","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Safronetz, D., Rosenke, K., Westover, J.B., Martellaro, C., Okumura, A., Furuta, Y., Geisbert, J., Saturday, G., Komeno, T., and Geisbert, T.W. (2015). The broad-spectrum antiviral favipiravir protects guinea pigs from lethal Lassa virus infection post-disease onset. Sci. Rep. UK, 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14775"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"257","article-title":"Study of certain indicators of immunity upon infecting CBA\/Calac line mice with Lassa virus","volume":"39","author":"Kaliberov","year":"1994","journal-title":"Vopr. Virusol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-8-205","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Lassa fever in cynomolgus macaques","volume":"8","author":"Hensley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5890","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01948-08","article-title":"Early and strong immune responses are associated with control of viral replication and recovery in lassa virus-infected cynomolgus monkeys","volume":"83","author":"Baize","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1150","DOI":"10.1021\/jm00281a014","article-title":"Design, synthesis, and broad spectrum antiviral activity of 1-\u03b2-D-ribofuranosyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide and related nucleosides","volume":"15","author":"Witkowski","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1517\/14656566.2.8.1317","article-title":"Ribavirin\u2014Current status of a broad spectrum antiviral agent","volume":"2","author":"Snell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v8.i2.123","article-title":"Ribavirin: Past, present and future","volume":"8","author":"Jacques","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-5520(20)30118-5","article-title":"Ribavirin aerosol treatment of serious respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants","volume":"1","author":"Rodriguez","year":"1987","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-107-5-664","article-title":"Ribavirin treatment of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and the acquired-immunodeficiency-syndrome-related complex (ARC). A phase 1 study shows transient clinical improvement associated with suppression of the human immunodeficiency virus and enhanced lymphocyte proliferation","volume":"107","author":"Crumpacker","year":"1987","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.31.8.1285","article-title":"Oral ribavirin treatment of influenza A and B","volume":"31","author":"Stein","year":"1987","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"666","article-title":"Effects of ribavirin on measles","volume":"109","author":"Pal","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Indian Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1863-2378.2011.01447.x","article-title":"Effect of ribavirin on junin virus infection in guinea pigs","volume":"59","author":"Salazar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198601023140104","article-title":"Lassa fever. Effective therapy with ribavirin","volume":"314","author":"McCormick","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2020, September 16). Efficacy Trials of Lassa Therapeutics: Endpoints, Trial Design, Site Selection. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/blueprint\/what\/norms-standards\/LassaTxeval_FinalmeetingReport.pdf?ua=1."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2019.07.015","article-title":"Ribavirin for the treatment of Lassa fever: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"87","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(1992). Final Report Analysis of a Clinical Trial Ribavirin and the Treatment of Lassa Fever, Birch and Davis Associates, Inc.. ISARIC, 7 February 1992."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1007\/s00535-003-1363-9","article-title":"Factors contributing to ribavirin dose reduction due to anemia during interferon alfa2b and ribavirin combination therapy for chronic hepatitis C","volume":"39","author":"Takaki","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16184","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i43.16184","article-title":"Ribavirin induced hemolysis: A novel mechanism of action against chronic hepatitis C virus infection","volume":"20","author":"Soota","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1097\/00001432-200112000-00015","article-title":"The mechanism of action of ribavirin: Lethal mutagenesis of RNA virus genomes mediated by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase","volume":"14","author":"Cameron","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.4155\/fmc.09.147","article-title":"Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase as a target for antiviral, anticancer, antimicrobial and immunosuppressive therapeutics","volume":"2","author":"Peetz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Future Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2003.09.043","article-title":"Regulation of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase type I and type II isoforms in human lymphocytes","volume":"67","author":"Jain","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.70.4.1174","article-title":"Mechanism of action of 1-\u03b2-D-ribofuranosyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide (Virazole), a new broad-spectrum antiviral agent","volume":"70","author":"Streeter","year":"1973","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1038\/82191","article-title":"The broad-spectrum antiviral ribonucleoside ribavirin is an RNA virus mutagen","volume":"6","author":"Crotty","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7246","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00614-11","article-title":"Ribavirin can be mutagenic for arenaviruses","volume":"85","author":"Moreno","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11693","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-10198-0","article-title":"Determining Ribavirin\u2019s mechanism of action against Lassa virus infection","volume":"7","author":"Nguyen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv522","article-title":"Efficacy of Favipiravir Alone and in Combination With Ribavirin in a Lethal, Immunocompetent Mouse Model of Lassa Fever","volume":"213","author":"Oestereich","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(79)90790-6","article-title":"Experimental Lassa fever virus infection successfully treated with ribavirin","volume":"1","author":"Stephen","year":"1979","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/141.5.580","article-title":"Lassa virus infection of rhesus monkeys: Pathogenesis and treatment with ribavirin","volume":"141","author":"Jahrling","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/149.3.420","article-title":"Enhanced Treatment of Lassa Fever by Immune Plasma Combined with Ribavirin in Cynomolgus Monkeys","volume":"149","author":"Jahrling","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lingas, G., Rosenke, K., Safronetz, D., and Guedj, J. (2021). Lassa viral dynamics in non-human primates treated with favipiravir or ribavirin. PLoS Comput. Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1008535"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2409.180233","article-title":"Use of Favipiravir to Treat Lassa Virus Infection in Macaques","volume":"24","author":"Rosenke","year":"2018","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asogun, D.A., Adomeh, D.I., Ehimuan, J., Odia, I., Hass, M., Gabriel, M., Olschlager, S., Becker-Ziaja, B., Folarin, O., and Phelan, E. (2012). Molecular Diagnostics for Lassa Fever at Irrua Specialist Teaching Hospital, Nigeria: Lessons Learnt from Two Years of Laboratory Operation. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001839"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2013.05.015","article-title":"Containing a Lassa fever epidemic in a resource-limited setting: Outbreak description and lessons learned from Abakaliki, Nigeria (January\u2013March 2012)","volume":"17","author":"Ajayi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1093\/trstmh\/tru009","article-title":"Constraints in the diagnosis and treatment of Lassa Fever and the effect on mortality in hospitalized children and women with obstetric conditions in a rural district hospital in Sierra Leone","volume":"108","author":"Dahmane","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaffer, J.G., Grant, D.S., Schieffelin, J.S., Boisen, M.L., Goba, A., Hartnett, J.N., Levy, D.C., Yenni, R.E., Moses, L.M., and Fullah, M. (2014). Lassa Fever in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002748"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2017.304186","article-title":"Mortaliy Among Confirmed Lassa Fever Cases During the 2015-2016 Outbreak in Nigeria","volume":"108","author":"Buba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Furuta, Y., and Egawa, H. (2000). Nitrogenous Heterocyclic Carboxamide Derivatives or Salts thereof and Antiviral Agents Containing Both. (WO2000010569A1), WIPO Patent."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Titova, Y.A., and Fedorova, O.V. (2020). Favipiravir\u2014A Modern Antiviral Drug: Synthesis and Modifications. Chem. Heterocycl. Compd. (N. Y.), 1\u20134.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10593-020-02715-3"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.93.027","article-title":"Favipiravir (T-705), a broad spectrum inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase","volume":"93","author":"Furuta","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3168","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00356-07","article-title":"In vitro and in vivo activities of T-705 against arenavirus and bunyavirus infections","volume":"51","author":"Gowen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.02.014","article-title":"Successful treatment of advanced Ebola virus infection with T-705 (favipiravir) in a small animal model","volume":"105","author":"Oestereich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2008.07.009","article-title":"Efficacy of orally administered T-705 pyrazine analog on lethal West Nile virus infection in rodents","volume":"80","author":"Morrey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26955","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2014441117","article-title":"Favipiravir at high doses has potent antiviral activity in SARS-CoV-2-infected hamsters, whereas hydroxychloroquine lacks activity","volume":"117","author":"Kaptein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2020.107512","article-title":"Favipiravir, an anti-influenza drug against life-threatening RNA virus infections","volume":"209","author":"Shiraki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mjafi.2020.08.004","article-title":"Favipiravir: A new and emerging antiviral option in COVID-19","volume":"76","author":"Agrawal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. J. Armed Forces India"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.49.3.981-986.2005","article-title":"Mechanism of action of T-705 against influenza virus","volume":"49","author":"Furuta","year":"2005","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Z., Smith, L.K., Rajwanshi, V.K., Kim, B., and Deval, J. (2013). The ambiguous base-pairing and high substrate efficiency of T-705 (Favipiravir) Ribofuranosyl 5\u2032-triphosphate towards influenza A virus polymerase. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0068347"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3741","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02346-12","article-title":"T-705 (favipiravir) induces lethal mutagenesis in influenza A H1N1 viruses in vitro","volume":"87","author":"Baranovich","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendenhall, M., Russell, A., Smee, D.F., Hall, J.O., Skirpstunas, R., Furuta, Y., and Gowen, B.B. (2011). Effective oral favipiravir (T-705) therapy initiated after the onset of clinical disease in a model of arenavirus hemorrhagic Fever. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001342"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gowen, B.B., Smee, D.F., Wong, M.H., Hall, J.O., Jung, K.H., Bailey, K.W., Stevens, J.R., Furuta, Y., and Morrey, J.D. (2008). Treatment of late stage disease in a model of arenaviral hemorrhagic fever: T-705 efficacy and reduced toxicity suggests an alternative to ribavirin. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0003725"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-7-240","article-title":"Assessing changes in vascular permeability in a hamster model of viral hemorrhagic fever","volume":"7","author":"Gowen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix406","article-title":"Favipiravir and Ribavirin Treatment of Epidemiologically Linked Cases of Lassa Fever","volume":"65","author":"Raabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.11.132","article-title":"Progress in the experimental therapy of severe arenaviral infections","volume":"6","author":"Gowen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uckun, F.M., Petkevich, A.S., Vassilev, A.O., Tibbles, H.E., and Titov, L. (2004). Stampidine prevents mortality in an experimental mouse model of viral hemorrhagic fever caused by lassa virus. BMC Infect. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-4-1"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10768","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00941-08","article-title":"Identification of a broad-spectrum arenavirus entry inhibitor","volume":"82","author":"Larson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madu, I.G., Files, M., Gharaibeh, D.N., Moore, A.L., Jung, K.H., Gowen, B.B., Dai, D., Jones, K.F., Tyavanagimatt, S.R., and Burgeson, J.R. (2018). A potent Lassa virus antiviral targets an arenavirus virulence determinant. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007439"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2011.02.012","article-title":"Evaluation of Lassa antiviral compound ST-193 in a guinea pig model","volume":"90","author":"Cashman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.transci.2020.102790","article-title":"Treatment for emerging viruses: Convalescent plasma and COVID-19","volume":"59","author":"Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transfus. Apher. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1017\/S0025727300001198","article-title":"Emil Behring\u2019s medical culture: From disinfection to serotherapy","volume":"51","author":"Simon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Hist."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"152","article-title":"Convalescent plasma: New evidence for an old therapeutic tool?","volume":"14","author":"Marano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Blood Transfus."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2033700","article-title":"Early High-Titer Plasma Therapy to Prevent Severe Covid-19 in Older Adults","volume":"384","author":"Libster","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1097\/MOH.0000000000000191","article-title":"The use of convalescent plasma to treat emerging infectious diseases: Focus on Ebola virus disease","volume":"22","author":"Winkler","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2007.10.010","article-title":"Treatment of Argentine hemorrhagic fever","volume":"78","author":"Enria","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1970.19.677","article-title":"Lassa fever, a new virus disease of man from West Africa. II. Report of a laboratory-acquired infection treated with plasma from a person recently recovered from the disease","volume":"19","author":"Leifer","year":"1970","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"435","article-title":"Lassa immune serum","volume":"55","author":"Clayton","year":"1977","journal-title":"Bull. World Health Organ."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6073.1399","article-title":"Lassa fever in Panguma Hospital, Sierra Leone, 1973\u20131976","volume":"1","author":"Keane","year":"1977","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(84)90107-X","article-title":"The use of Lassa fever convalescent plasma in Nigeria","volume":"78","author":"Frame","year":"1984","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1016\/0035-9203(85)90388-8","article-title":"Endemic Lassa fever in Liberia. IV. Selection of optimally effective plasma for treatment by passive immunization","volume":"79","author":"Jahrling","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.67.784.193","article-title":"Exchange transfusion of a patient with fulminant Lassa fever","volume":"67","author":"Cummins","year":"1991","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.1890120203","article-title":"Protection of Lassa virus-infected guinea pigs with Lassa-immune plasma of guinea pig, primate, and human origin","volume":"12","author":"Jahrling","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.44.2.528-533.1984","article-title":"Passive antibody therapy of Lassa fever in cynomolgus monkeys: Importance of neutralizing antibody and Lassa virus strain","volume":"44","author":"Jahrling","year":"1984","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.4396","article-title":"Human-monoclonal-antibody therapy protects nonhuman primates against advanced Lassa fever","volume":"23","author":"Mire","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"(2021, February 15). SYNAGIS\u00ae (Palivizumab) Injection, for Intramuscular Use, Available online: https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/drugsatfda_docs\/label\/2014\/103770s5185lbl.pdf."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"(2021, February 15). FDA Approves First Treatment for Ebola Virus, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/news-events\/press-announcements\/fda-approves-first-treatment-ebola-virus."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1802256","article-title":"Monoclonal Antibodies for Emerging Infectious Diseases\u2014Borrowing from History","volume":"378","author":"Marston","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.148","article-title":"Passive immunotherapy of viral infections: \u2018Super-antibodies\u2019 enter the fray","volume":"18","author":"Walker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11544","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11544","article-title":"Most neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies target novel epitopes requiring both Lassa virus glycoprotein subunits","volume":"7","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2016.08.012","article-title":"Treatment of Lassa virus infection in outbred guinea pigs with first-in-class human monoclonal antibodies","volume":"133","author":"Cross","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S147276","article-title":"Current research for a vaccine against Lassa hemorrhagic fever virus","volume":"12","author":"Warner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Drug. Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mari Saez, A., Cherif Haidara, M., Camara, A., Kourouma, F., Sage, M., Magassouba, N., and Fichet-Calvet, E. (2018). Rodent control to fight Lassa fever: Evaluation and lessons learned from a 4-year study in Upper Guinea. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006829"}],"container-title":["Microorganisms"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/9\/4\/772\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:34:15Z","timestamp":1760362455000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2607\/9\/4\/772"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["microorganisms9040772"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/microorganisms9040772","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2607"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2607","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,7]]}}}