{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T22:27:12Z","timestamp":1788992832676,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,19]],"date-time":"2021-05-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621382400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A variety of antiviral treatments for COVID-19 have been investigated, involving many repurposed drugs. Currently, the SARS-CoV-2 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, encoded by nsp12-nsp7-nsp8) has been targeted by numerous inhibitors, e.g., remdesivir, the only provisionally approved treatment to-date, although the clinical impact of these interventions remains inconclusive. However, the potential emergence of antiviral resistance poses a threat to the efficacy of any successful therapies on a wide scale. Here, we propose a framework to monitor the emergence of antiviral resistance, and as a proof of concept, we address the interaction between RdRp and remdesivir. We show that SARS-CoV-2 RdRp is under purifying selection, that potential escape mutations are rare in circulating lineages, and that those mutations, where present, do not destabilise RdRp. In more than 56,000 viral genomes from 105 countries from the first pandemic wave, we found negative selective pressure affecting nsp12 (Tajima\u2019s D = \u22122.62), with potential antiviral escape mutations in only 0.3% of sequenced genomes. Potential escape mutations included known key residues, such as Nsp12:Val473 and Nsp12:Arg555. Of the potential escape mutations involved globally, in silico structural models found that they were unlikely to be associated with loss of stability in RdRp. No potential escape mutation was found in a local cohort of remdesivir treated patients. Collectively, these findings indicate that RdRp is a suitable drug target, and that remdesivir does not seem to exert high selective pressure. We anticipate our framework to be the starting point of a larger effort for a global monitoring of drug resistance throughout the COVID-19 pandemic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9051094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,19]],"date-time":"2021-05-19T21:49:21Z","timestamp":1621460961000},"page":"1094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Global Genomic Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 RNA Dependent RNA Polymerase Evolution and Antiviral Drug Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3871-088X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfredo","family":"Mari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Roloff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4559-2535","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madlen","family":"Stange","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirstine K.","family":"S\u00f8gaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erblin","family":"Asllanaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50-70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5921-7007","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerardo","family":"Tauriello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50-70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7594-2110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leila Tamara","family":"Alexander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 4053-4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Biozentrum, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50-70, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Schweitzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Applied Microbiology Research, Department of Biomedicine, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Division of Clinical Bacteriology and Mycology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karoline","family":"Leuzinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Virology, University Hospital Basel, 4031 Basel, Switzerland"},{"name":"Transplantation &amp; 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