{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T11:34:11Z","timestamp":1792409651428,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":330,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,6]],"date-time":"2021-12-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638748800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microorganisms"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Universal history is characterized by continuous evolution, in which civilizations are born and die. This evolution is associated with multiple factors, among which the role of microorganisms is often overlooked. Viruses and bacteria have written or decisively contributed to terrible episodes of history, such as the Black Death in 14th century Europe, the annihilation of pre-Columbian American civilizations, and pandemics such as the 1918 Spanish flu or the current COVID-19 pandemic caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Nevertheless, it is clear that we could not live in a world without these tiny beings. Endogenous retroviruses have been key to our evolution and for the regulation of gene expression, and the gut microbiota helps us digest compounds that we could not otherwise process. In addition, we have used microorganisms to preserve or prepare food for millennia and more recently to obtain drugs such as antibiotics or to develop recombinant DNA technologies. Due to the enormous importance of microorganisms for our survival, they have significantly influenced the population genetics of different human groups. This paper will review the role of microorganisms as \u201cvillains\u201d who have been responsible for tremendous mortality throughout history but also as \u201cfriends\u201d who help us survive and evolve.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9122518","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,6]],"date-time":"2021-12-06T22:18:42Z","timestamp":1638829122000},"page":"2518","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Microorganisms as Shapers of Human Civilization, from Pandemics to Even Our Genomes: Villains or Friends? A Historical Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Francisco","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Fr\u00edas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Biochemistry Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Vall d\u2019Hebron Institut Recerca-Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Hep\u00e1ticas y Digestivas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Liver Pathology Unit, Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0014-084X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josep","family":"Quer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Hep\u00e1ticas y Digestivas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Liver Unit, Liver Disease Laboratory-Viral Hepatitis, Vall d\u2019Hebron Institut Recerca, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Vall d\u2019Hebron Barcelona Hospital Campus, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1146-4084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Tabernero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Hep\u00e1ticas y Digestivas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Francesca","family":"Cortese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Biochemistry Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Vall d\u2019Hebron Institut Recerca-Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Hep\u00e1ticas y Digestivas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7697-2058","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Selene","family":"Garcia-Garcia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Biochemistry Research Group, Department of Biochemistry, Vall d\u2019Hebron Institut Recerca-Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Hep\u00e1ticas y Digestivas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4555-7286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ariadna","family":"Rando-Segura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Liver Pathology Unit, Departments of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Universitat Aut\u00f2noma de Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Vall d\u2019Hebron Barcelona Hospital Campus, Passeig Vall d\u2019Hebron 119-129, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomas","family":"Pumarola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, Vall d\u2019Hebron Barcelona Hospital Campus, Passeig Vall d\u2019Hebron 119-129, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Kramer, S.N. 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