{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T17:54:04Z","timestamp":1790963644298,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":111,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757030400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Microplastics"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Human exposure to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment and their potential health effects are of growing public interest. Regarding water, that interest grows because multiple studies found MNPs in different matrices including tap and bottled water. We intended to (i) understand how MNPs enter freshwater systems and drinkable water, (ii) assess the evidence of human exposure to MNPs in water, and (iii) identify data gaps to support the determination of potential health effects. We searched the literature and selected studies via rigorous inclusion criteria, analyzed the data assessing the reliability of findings, and identified data gaps associated with human exposure to MNPs in water. The lack of standard sampling and analytical methods for testing MNPs in water constitutes a barrier to make accurate comparisons. The diverse analytical methods to fully characterize MNPs led to different findings in samples of similar matrices. Current drinking and wastewater treatment systems are not designed to remove MNPs. However, efforts to enhance the precision and accuracy of MNPs\u2019 characterization and their removal by treatment systems are promising. Therefore, addressing data gaps could produce reliable data for conducting exposure and risk assessments, protect our communities, and control the mobility of MNPs to minimize exposures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/microplastics4030060","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]],"date-time":"2025-09-05T07:46:17Z","timestamp":1757058377000},"page":"60","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Human Exposures to Micro- and Nanoplastics in Water and Data Needed to Understand Potential Health Effects\u2014A-State of the Science Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6716-1907","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Max","family":"Zarate-Bermudez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaston","family":"Casillas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Janie","family":"Hils","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cincinnati Health Department, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Yeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yulia","family":"Carroll","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"EPA (2024, August 20). 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