{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T16:52:40Z","timestamp":1782838360367,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]],"date-time":"2021-05-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621296000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Minerals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In order to increase the recovery of PGMs by flotation, it is necessary to optimise the liberation of the key minerals in which the platinum group elements (PGEs) are contained which include sulphides, arsenides, tellurides, and ferroalloys among others, while at the same time ensuring the optimal depression of gangue minerals. In order to achieve this, comminution circuits usually consist of two or three stages of milling, in which the first stage is autogeneous, followed by ball milling. Further liberation is achieved in subsequent stages using ultra-fine grinding. Each comminution stage is followed by flotation in the so-called MF2 or MF3 circuits. While this staged process increases overall recoveries, overgrinding may occur, hence creating problems associated with fine particle flotation. This paper presents an overview of the mineralogy of most of the more significant PGM ores processed in South Africa and the various technologies used in comminution circuits. The paper then summarises the methodology used in flotation circuits to optimise recovery of fine particles in terms of the collectors, depressants, and frothers used. The effect of entrainment, slimes coating, changes in rheology caused by the presence of a significant amount of fines and of chromite recovery is addressed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/min11050533","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]],"date-time":"2021-05-18T23:34:46Z","timestamp":1621380886000},"page":"533","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Challenges Related to the Processing of Fines in the Recovery of Platinum Group Minerals (PGMs)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9908-423X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kirsten","family":"Corin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Minerals Research, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cape Town, P Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Belinda","family":"McFadzean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Minerals Research, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cape Town, P Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5649-3604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalie","family":"Shackleton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Minerals Expertise Tech Pty Ltd., Germiston 2007, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cyril","family":"O\u2019Connor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Minerals Research, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cape Town, P Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(76)90029-6","article-title":"The floatability of very fine particles\u2014A review","volume":"3","author":"Trahar","year":"1976","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Somasundaran, P. (1980). Fine Particle Flotation. Fine Particle Processing, The American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Shackleton, N.J., Mokoena, D.M., and Malysiak, V. (2012, January 24\u201328). Fundamental study of fine PGE particle flotation. Proceedings of the XXVII International Minerals Processing Congress, New Delhi, India."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Grano, S.R., Wong, P., Skinner, W., Johnson, N.W., and Ralston, J. (1994, January 20\u201323). The effect of autogenous and ball mill grinding on the chemical environment and flotation of the copper ore of Mount ISA Mines Ltd. Proceedings of the III Latin-American Congress on Froth Flotation, Concepcion, Chile."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2005.09.056","article-title":"Designing flotation circuits for high fines recovery","volume":"19","author":"Pease","year":"2006","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Rule, C.M., and Plint, N. (2012, January 17\u201320). What will the typical PGM concentrator look like?. Proceedings of the 8th International Comminution Symposium, Comminution\u201912, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Engelbrecht, J. (2012, January 19\u201321). Potential changes in the physical beneficiation processes that can improve the recovery grade or costs for the platinum group metals. Proceedings of the Fifth International Platinum Conference: A Catalyst for Change 2012, Sun City, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2012.03.011","article-title":"The effect of surface liberation and particle size on flotation rate constants","volume":"36\u201338","author":"Jameson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Steyn, J.J. (2012). Developing a Framework for the Design of the Milling and Rougher Circuits for a Platinum-Bearing UG2 Ore. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2007.02.011","article-title":"Balancing reagent suite to optimize grade and recovery","volume":"20","author":"Valenta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-1951(00)00227-4","article-title":"Connectivity between western and eastern limbs of the Bushveld Complex","volume":"330","author":"Cawthorn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Tectonophysics"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"30","article-title":"Energy considerations in the current PGM processing flowsheet utilizing new technologies","volume":"108","author":"Rule","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1595\/003214099X434146148","article-title":"Seventy-fifth Anniversary of the Discovery of the Platiniferous Merenskv Reef: The largest platinum deposits in the world","volume":"43","author":"Cawthorn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Platin. Met. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"48","article-title":"The platinum and palladium resources of the bushveld complex","volume":"95","author":"Cawthorn","year":"1999","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1595\/003214000X4413339","article-title":"A short geological review of the Bushveld Complex","volume":"44","author":"Schouwstra","year":"2000","journal-title":"Platin. Met. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, C., and Alexandrova, T. (2021). The geological occurrence, mineralogy, and processing by flotation of platinum group minerals (PGMs) in South Africa and Russia. Minerals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/min11010054"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Vermaak, C.F. (1995). The Platinum Group Metals: A Global Perspective, Mintek."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Shackleton, N.J. (2007). Surface Characterization and Flotation Behavior of the Platinum and Palladium Arsenide, Telluride and Sulphide Mineral Species. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Malysiak, V., and Shackleton, N.J. Private, Personal Communication."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Shackleton, N.J., Malysiak, V., Theron, E.H.W., and Dicks, P.F. (2021, January 18\u201322). Where chemistry and mineralogy meet during PGE and BMS flotation. Proceedings of the XXX International Mineral Processing Congress, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Napier-Munn, T.J., Morrell, S., Morrison, R.D., and Kojovic, T. (1996). Mineral Comminution Circuits\u2014Their Operation and Operation, Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Pease, J.D., Curry, D.C., Barnes, K.E., Young, M.F., and Rule, C. (2006, January 17\u201319). Transforming flow sheet design with inert grinding media\u2014The IsaMill. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Mineral Processors, Ottawa, ON, Canada."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2014.05.017","article-title":"Benchmarking comminution energy consumption for the processing of copper and gold ores","volume":"65","author":"Ballantyne","year":"2014","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Rule, C. (2010, January 11\u201314). Stirred milling\u2014New comminution technology in the PGM industry. Proceedings of the 4th International Platinum Conference, Platinum in Transition \u2018Boom or Bust\u2019, Sun City, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Broekmans, M. (2011, January 1\u20135). Process mineralogy delivering significant value at anglo platinum concentrator operations. Proceedings of the 10th International Congress for Applied Mineralogy (ICAM), Trondheim, Norway."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Humphries, G., Rule, C., and Wolmarans, E. (2006, January 8\u201312). The development of a process flowsheet for the new Anglo Platinum PPRust north concentrator; incorporating HPGR technology. Proceedings of the International Platinum Conference \u2018Platinum Surges Ahead\u2019, Sun City, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Morley, C.T. (2008). Plant Layout Considerations for High Pressure Grinding Rolls, Procemin."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2011.01.001","article-title":"The effect of using different comminution procedures on the flotation of Platinum-Group Minerals","volume":"24","author":"Chapman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1","article-title":"Not another HPGR trade-off study!","volume":"28","author":"Amelunxen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Metall. Process."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Daniel, M. (2007). Energy Efficient Mineral Liberation Using HPGR Technology. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Queensland]."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Kawatra, S.K. (2006). High-pressure grinding rolls for gold\/copper applications. Advances in Comminution, Society for Mining Metallurgy & Exploration."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2017.06.005","article-title":"Improved characterisation of ball milling energy requirements for HPGR products","volume":"116","author":"Ballantyne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"101","article-title":"Stirred milling\u2014New comminution technology in the PGM industry","volume":"111","author":"Rule","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Rule, C.M. (2011, January 25\u201328). Stirred milling at Anglo American Platinum. Proceedings of the International Autogenous Grinding and High Pressure Grinding Roll Technology, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2007.11.001","article-title":"Quantifying the influence of classification with the 3-product cyclone on liberation and recovery of PGMs in UG2 ore","volume":"21","author":"Becker","year":"2008","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"720","article-title":"The formation and disruption particle-bubble aggregates in flotation","volume":"Volume l","author":"Jowett","year":"1980","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Fine Particles Processing: International Symposium on Fine Particles Processing"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(81)90019-3","article-title":"Rational interpretation of the role of particle size in flotation","volume":"8","author":"Trahar","year":"1981","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1081\/SS-120028444","article-title":"Role of bubble size in flotation of coarse and fine particles","volume":"39","author":"Tao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sep. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1006\/jcis.1997.5280","article-title":"The inertial hydrodynamic interaction of particles and rising bubbles with mobile surfaces","volume":"197","author":"Dai","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interfacial Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-8686(99)00030-5","article-title":"Particle-bubble collision models\u2014A review","volume":"85","author":"Dai","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(95)00057-7","article-title":"Review and analysis of factors controlling the mechanical flotation of gangue minerals","volume":"46","author":"Kirjavainen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-6875(98)00003-X","article-title":"An empirical model for entrainment in industrial flotation plants","volume":"11","author":"Savassi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1021\/j150422a013","article-title":"Flotation kinetics, II. The effect of size on the behaviour of galena particles","volume":"46","author":"Gaudin","year":"1942","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"47","article-title":"The effect of particle size on the activation and flotation of sphalerite","volume":"254","author":"Anthony","year":"1975","journal-title":"Proc. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(76)90031-4","article-title":"The selective flotation of galena from sphalerite with special reference to the effects of particle size","volume":"3","author":"Trahar","year":"1976","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Jones, M.H., and Woodcock, J.T. (1984). Physical aspects of fine particle flotation. Principles of Mineral Flotation. The Wark Symposium, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Series 40."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(88)90004-X","article-title":"Froth stability, particle entrainment and drainage in flottaion\u2013A review","volume":"23","author":"Subrahmanyam","year":"1988","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2009.12.006","article-title":"The limits of fine particle flotation","volume":"23","author":"Miettinen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farrokhpay, S., Filippov, L., and Fornasiero, D. (2020). Flotation of fine particles: A review. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev.","DOI":"10.1080\/08827508.2020.1793140"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/S0892-6875(99)00059-X","article-title":"Effect of particle size on flotation performance of complex sulphide ores","volume":"12","author":"Feng","year":"1999","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"19","article-title":"The treatment of slimes","volume":"3","author":"Collins","year":"1971","journal-title":"Miner. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2005.01.024","article-title":"The effect of agitation on the flotation of platinum ores","volume":"18","author":"Deglon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-9618(93)80007-E","article-title":"Separation of fines by flotation techniques","volume":"3","author":"Matis","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sep. Technol."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Pease, J.D., Young, M.F., Curry, D., and Johnson, N.W. (2004). Improving Fines Recovery by Grinding Finer, MetPlant."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2012.02.019","article-title":"The role of dithiophosphate as a co-collector in the flotation of a platinum group mineral ore","volume":"36\u201338","author":"Corin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Schwarz, S. (2004). The Relationship between Froth Recovery and Froth Structure. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ian Wark Research Institute]."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"C61","article-title":"Kinetics of flotation with fine bubbles","volume":"94","author":"Szatkowski","year":"1985","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Min. Metall."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-7516(91)90004-3","article-title":"An investigation of sub-processes in equilibrium froths (1): The mechanisms of detachment and drainage","volume":"31","author":"Ross","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2017.04.012","article-title":"The effect of energy input on the flotation of a platinum ore in a pilot-scale oscillating grid flotation cell","volume":"110","author":"Safari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2005.11.005","article-title":"Modelling of entrainment in industrial flotation cells: Water recovery and degree of entrainment","volume":"19","author":"Zheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2016.05.018","article-title":"The entrainment effect on the performance of iron ore reverse flotation","volume":"96\u201397","author":"Lima","year":"2016","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2010.05.002","article-title":"A case study of optimizing UG2 flotation performance. Part 1: Bench, pilot and plant scale factors which influence Cr2O3 entrainment in UG2 flotation","volume":"23","author":"Hay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2014.08.016","article-title":"The interactive effects of chemical and process parameters on the flotation performance of a UG2 ore","volume":"70","author":"McFadzean","year":"2015","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.minpro.2009.10.004","article-title":"Mineralogical characterisation of naturally floatable gangue in Merensky Reef ore flotation","volume":"93","author":"Becker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, Y., Zhang, G., Wang, M., and Liu, D. (2018). The critical role of pulp density on flotation separation of nickel-copper sulfide from fine serpentine. Minerals, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/min8080317"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Molifie, A. (2021). Investigating the Use of Sodium Silicate to Improve the Flotation Performance of Altered PGE Ores. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cape Town]."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"125","article-title":"An investigation into the role of froth phase in controlling chromite in the flotation of UG2 ore using laboratory column flotation cell","volume":"55","author":"Wiese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2010.05.015","article-title":"A case study of optimizing UG2 flotation performance. Part 2: Modelling improved PGM recovery and Cr2O3 rejection at Northam\u2019s UG2 concentrator","volume":"23","author":"Hay","year":"2010","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2012.02.014","article-title":"Gravity separation of a UG-2 ore secondary sample for the reduction of chromite minerals","volume":"30","author":"Maharaj","year":"2012","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Achaye, I., Wiese, J., and McFadzean, B. (2019). Effect of mineral particle size on froth stability. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall.","DOI":"10.1080\/25726641.2019.1606147"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2015.10.014","article-title":"Flotation frother mixtures: Decoupling the sub-processes of froth stability, froth recovery and entrainment","volume":"85","author":"McFadzean","year":"2016","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2016.02.004","article-title":"Adsorption of copper sulphate on PGM-bearing ores and its influence on froth stability and flotation kinetics","volume":"92","author":"Nyabeze","year":"2016","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2102","DOI":"10.1002\/cjce.23476","article-title":"Slurry rheology in mineral processing unit operations: A critical review","volume":"97","author":"Cruz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Can. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2011.05.008","article-title":"The influence of phyllosilicate mineralogy on the rheology of mineral slurries","volume":"24","author":"Ndlovu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2011.04.025","article-title":"The effects of chrysotile mineralogical properties on the rheology of chrysotile suspensions","volume":"24","author":"Ndlovu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Burdukova, E., Becker, M., Ndlovu, B., Mokgethi, D., and Deglon, D. (2008, January 24\u201328). Relationship between slurry rheology and its mineralogical content. Proceedings of the 24th International Mineral Processing Congress, Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2013.05.007","article-title":"A rheological investigation of the behaviour of two Southern African platinum ores","volume":"49","author":"Becker","year":"2013","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-7516(01)00060-6","article-title":"Effects of slurry rheology on industrial grinding performance","volume":"65","author":"Shi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2010.08.010","article-title":"Towards a mechanistic model for slurry transport in tumbling mills","volume":"24","author":"Govender","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.minpro.2014.08.006","article-title":"A semi-mechanistic model of hydrocyclones\u2013Developed from industrial data and inputs from CFD","volume":"133","author":"Narasimha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2010.03.016","article-title":"The development of a cavern model for mechanical flotation cells","volume":"23","author":"Bakker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2011.07.004","article-title":"Effect of slurry rheology on gas dispersion in a pilot-scale mechanical flotation cell","volume":"24","author":"Shabalala","year":"2011","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Onal, G., Acarkan, N., Celik, M.S., Arslan, F., Atesok, G., Guney, A., Sirkeci, A.A., Yuce, A.E., and Perek, K.T. (2006, January 3\u20138). Effect of MgO minerals on pentlandite flotation. Proceedings of the 23rd International Minerals Processing Congress, Istanbul, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2012.05.009","article-title":"The importance of rheology in mineral flotation: A review","volume":"36\u201338","author":"Farrokhpay","year":"2012","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2003.07.016","article-title":"Froth recovery measurement in plant scale flotation cells","volume":"16","author":"Alexander","year":"2003","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.minpro.2004.04.001","article-title":"Bubble load measurement in the pulp zone of industrial flotation machines\u2014A new device for determining the froth recovery of attached particles","volume":"74","author":"Seaman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2007.12.012","article-title":"Froth recovery of industrial flotation cells","volume":"21","author":"Yianatos","year":"2008","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1179\/cmq.2010.49.4.337","article-title":"Froth recovery factor\u2014What is it and why is it so difficult to measure?","volume":"49","author":"Franzidis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. Metall. Q."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-7516(02)00120-5","article-title":"The rheology of flotation froths","volume":"69","author":"Shi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2015.10.013","article-title":"Determining the significance of flotation variables on froth rheology using a central composite rotatable design","volume":"287","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2016.02.018","article-title":"Effect of flotation froth properties on froth rheology","volume":"294","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2017.10.003","article-title":"Effect of froth rheology on froth and flotation performance","volume":"115","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2018.09.050","article-title":"Effect of flotation conditions on froth rheology","volume":"340","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"1314","article-title":"Application of rheology to solving tailings disposal problems","volume":"24","author":"Nguyen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2007.05.004","article-title":"Surface characteristics and flotation behaviour of platinum and palladium tellurides","volume":"20","author":"Shackleton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.minpro.2007.08.002","article-title":"Surface characteristics and flotation behaviour of platinum and palladium arsenides","volume":"85","author":"Shackleton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Molifie, A., McFadzean, B., Becker, M., and Geldenhuys, S. (2020, January 18\u201322). Investigating the use of sodium metasilicate to improve the flotation performance of altered PGE ores. Proceedings of the XXVIII International Mineral Processing Congress, Cape Town, South Africa."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2013.06.004","article-title":"A preliminary rheological classification of phyllosilicate group minerals","volume":"55","author":"Ndlovu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfa.2010.03.043","article-title":"Poly(acrylic acid) as a rheology modifier for dense alumina dispersions in high ionic strength environments","volume":"362","author":"Bhosale","year":"2010","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. A"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2004.09.015","article-title":"An overview of the use of chemical reagents in mineral processing","volume":"18","author":"Pearse","year":"2005","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apt.2009.01.002","article-title":"Effect of grinding aids on the kinetics of fine grinding energy consumed of calcite powders by a stirred ball mill","volume":"20","author":"Choi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"107","article-title":"Effect of chemical additives on flow characteristics of coal slurries","volume":"42","author":"Mosa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physicochem. Probl. Miner. Process."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mineng.2019.04.005","article-title":"Improved flotation of PGM tailings with a high-shear hydrodynamic cavitation device","volume":"137","author":"Ross","year":"2019","journal-title":"Miner. Eng."}],"container-title":["Minerals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-163X\/11\/5\/533\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:03:40Z","timestamp":1760162620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2075-163X\/11\/5\/533"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]]},"references-count":103,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5]]}},"alternative-id":["min11050533"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/min11050533","relation":{},"ISSN":["2075-163X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2075-163X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,18]]}}}