{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T01:37:59Z","timestamp":1778809079135,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,24]],"date-time":"2014-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1414108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A microemulsion system containing Thai mango seed kernel extract (MSKE, cultivar \u201cFahlun\u201d) was developed and characterised for the purpose of topical skin delivery. The MSKE-loaded microemulsions were prepared by using the spontaneous emulsification method. Isopropyl myristate (IPM) was selected as the oil phase. A polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate and sorbitan monododecanoate (1:1, w\/w) system was used as the surfactant phase; an aqueous mixture of different cosurfactants (absolute ethanol, 96.3% v\/v ethanol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol or 1,2-propanediol) at a weight ratio of 1:1 was used as the aqueous phase. Among the cosurfactants studied, the 1-propanol aqueous mixture had the largest microemulsion region (48.93%) in the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Microemulsions containing 1% MSKE demonstrated good physicochemical stability during a six-month study period at 25 \u00b1 2 \u00b0C\/60% \u00b1 5% RH. The ex vivo skin permeation study demonstrated that the microemulsions exhibited a potent skin enhancement effect allowing MSKE to penetrate skin layers up to 60-fold higher compared with the control. Neither skin irritation nor skin corrosion was observed in ex vivo studies. The present study revealed that  IPM-based microemulsion systems may be promising carriers to enhance skin penetration and delivering MSKE for topical treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules191117107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,24]],"date-time":"2014-10-24T11:46:16Z","timestamp":1414151176000},"page":"17107-17129","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Microemulsion System for Topical Delivery of Thai Mango Seed Kernel Extract: Development, Physicochemical Characterisation and Ex Vivo Skin Permeation Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jiraporn","family":"Leanpolchareanchai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, 447 Sri-Ayuthaya Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Karine","family":"Padois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EA 4169 \"Fonctions Normales et Pathologiques de la Barri\u00e8re Cutan\u00e9e\", Laboratoire de Recherche et D\u00e9veloppement de Pharmacie Gal\u00e9nique Industrielle, ISPB-Facult\u00e9 de Pharmacie,  Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard Lyon-I, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7oise","family":"Falson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EA 4169 \"Fonctions Normales et Pathologiques de la Barri\u00e8re Cutan\u00e9e\", Laboratoire de Recherche et D\u00e9veloppement de Pharmacie Gal\u00e9nique Industrielle, ISPB-Facult\u00e9 de Pharmacie,  Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard Lyon-I, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, F-69373 Lyon Cedex 08, France"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rapepol","family":"Bavovada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Payathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pimolpan","family":"Pithayanukul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, 447 Sri-Ayuthaya Road, Rajathevi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Available online: http:\/\/faostat.fao.org\/."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"59","article-title":"Drying and storage behaviour of mango (Mangifera indica) seeds and composition of kernel fat","volume":"4","author":"Hemavathy","year":"1988","journal-title":"ASEAN Food J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0010(199703)73:3<321::AID-JSFA722>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"Physical, chemical and functional properties of Nigerian mango (Mangifera indica) kernel and its processed flour","volume":"73","author":"Arogba","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1021\/np960040+","article-title":"Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs: Possible modes of action","volume":"59","author":"Haslam","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2004.02.003","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of selected fruit seeds","volume":"88","author":"Soong","year":"2004","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1185507","article-title":"Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities of Thai mango seed kernel extract","volume":"75","author":"Nithitanakool","year":"2009","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1404","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14041404","article-title":"Molecular docking studies and anti-enzymatic activities of Thai mango seed kernel extract against snake venoms","volume":"14","author":"Leanpolchareanchai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14010257","article-title":"Molecular docking studies and anti-tyrosinase activity of Thai mango seed kernel extract","volume":"14","author":"Nithitanakool","year":"2009","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3198","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14093198","article-title":"Molecular docking studies and anti-snake venom metalloproteinase activity of Thai mango seed kernel extract","volume":"14","author":"Pithayanukul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6255","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules16086255","article-title":"The inhibitory potential of Thai mango seed kernel extract against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"16","author":"Jiamboonsri","year":"2011","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2066","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-009-9932-0","article-title":"Anti-cancer, anti-diabetic and other pharmacologic and biological activities of penta-galloyl-glucose","volume":"26","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2011.01.006","article-title":"Autophagy is involved in anti-viral activity of pentagalloylglucose (PGG) against Herpes simplex virus type 1 infection in vitro","volume":"405","author":"Pei","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-8686(98)00063-3","article-title":"Structure, dynamics and transport properties of microemulsions","volume":"78","author":"Moulik","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-5173(03)00063-2","article-title":"Sodium ascorbyl phosphate in topical microemulsions","volume":"256","author":"Homar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2007.07.022","article-title":"Transdermal delivery of capsaicin derivative-sodium nonivamide acetate using microemulsions as vehicles","volume":"349","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2009.10.003","article-title":"Self-microemulsifying and microemulsion systems for transdermal delivery of indomethacin: Effect of phase transition","volume":"75","year":"2010","journal-title":"Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpharm.2007.12.022","article-title":"Transdermal delivery of hydrocortisone from eucalyptus oil microemulsion: Effects of cosurfactants","volume":"355","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-409X(00)00103-4","article-title":"Microemulsion-based media as novel drug delivery systems","volume":"45","author":"Lawrence","year":"2000","journal-title":"Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2008.10.004","article-title":"Simultaneous absorption of vitamins C and E from topical microemulsions using reconstructed human epidermis as a skin model","volume":"72","author":"Rozman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"459","article-title":"Formulation of microemulsion gel systems for transdermal delivery of celecoxib: In vitro permeation, anti-inflammatory activity and skin irritation tests","volume":"4","author":"Soliman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malakar, J., Sen, S.O., Nayak, A.K., and Sen, K.K. (2011). Development and evaluation of microemulsions for transdermal delivery of insulin. ISRN Pharm., Available online: http:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/isrn.pharmaceutics\/2011\/780150\/.","DOI":"10.5402\/2011\/780150"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"496","article-title":"Lipid nanoemulsions loaded with doxorubicin-oleic acid ionic complex: Characterization, in vitro and in vivo studies","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmazie"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jconrel.2005.03.018","article-title":"Tricaprylin microemulsion for oral delivery of low molecular weight heparin conjugates","volume":"105","author":"Kim","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1208\/s12249-009-9356-5","article-title":"Tween-embedded microemulsions-Physicochemical and spectroscopic analysis for antitubercular drugs","volume":"11","author":"Mehta","year":"2010","journal-title":"AAPS PharmSciTech"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(94)00253-2","article-title":"Enhanced transdermal delivery of estradiol in vitro using binary vehicles of isopropyl myristate and short-chain alkanols","volume":"114","author":"Liu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-5173(99)00281-1","article-title":"Investigation of the phase behaviour of systems containing lecithin and 2-acyl lysolecithin derivatives","volume":"190","author":"Trotta","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-5173(01)00671-8","article-title":"Topical transport of hydrophilic compounds using water-in-oil nanoemulsions","volume":"220","author":"Wu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"155","article-title":"Micelles, microemulsions, liquid crystals, and the structure of stratum corneum lipids","volume":"41","author":"Friberg","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1081\/DDC-100000125","article-title":"Characterizing colloidal structures of pseudoternary phase diagrams formed by oil\/water\/amphiphile systems","volume":"27","author":"Alany","year":"2001","journal-title":"Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1021\/la00074a001","article-title":"Organized surfactant systems: Microemulsions","volume":"3","author":"Shinoda","year":"1987","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.4103\/2230-973X.85963","article-title":"Nanocarrier-based hydrogel of betamethasone dipropionate and salicylic acid for treatment of psoriasis","volume":"1","author":"Baboota","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Investig."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bronaugh, R., and Maibach, H. (1989). In Vitro Percutaneous Absorption: Principles, Fundamentals, and Applications, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-3659(90)90086-9","article-title":"Mechanism of percutaneous penetration enhancement: Effect of n-alkanols on the permeability barrier of hairless mouse skin","volume":"12","author":"Kai","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Control. Release"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1002\/jps.10550","article-title":"Mechanistic studies of branched-chain alkanols as skin permeation enhancers","volume":"93","author":"Chantasart","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/S0887-2333(01)00002-9","article-title":"A prevalidation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation: Results and evaluation by the Management Team","volume":"15","author":"Fentem","year":"2001","journal-title":"Toxicol. In Vitro"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/026119290203000110","article-title":"Follow-up to the ECVAM prevalidation study on in vitro tests for acute skin irritation. The ECVAM skin irritation task force report 2","volume":"30","author":"Zuang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Altern. Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"300","article-title":"Solid lipid nanoparticles suspension versus commercial solutions for dermal delivery of minoxidil","volume":"416","author":"Padois","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"485","article-title":"Analysis of foods for lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, arsenic, and selenium, using closed system sample digestion: Collaborative study","volume":"63","author":"Holak","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1093\/jaoac\/83.5.1189","article-title":"Determination of lead, cadmium, zinc, copper, and iron in foods by atomic absorption spectrometry after microwave digestion: NMKL1 collaborative study","volume":"83","author":"Jorhem","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. AOAC Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00322352","article-title":"Multipesticide residue method for fruits and vegetables: California Department of Food and Agriculture","volume":"339","author":"Lee","year":"1991","journal-title":"Fresenius J. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"4435","article-title":"Effect of the pH dependence of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide-formazan absorption on chemosensitivity determined by a novel tetrazolium based assay","volume":"49","author":"Plumb","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(89)90296-2","article-title":"Studies on microemulsions using Brij 96 as surfactant and glycerin, ethylene glycol and propylene glycol as cosurfactants","volume":"57","author":"Kale","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"413","article-title":"Methods for the separation of epidermis from dermis and some physiologic and chemical properties of isolated epidermis","volume":"2","author":"Baumberger","year":"1942","journal-title":"J. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1080\/10915810305094","article-title":"Comparison of in vivo (Draize method) and in vitro (Corrositex assay) dermal corrosion values for selected industrial chemicals","volume":"22","author":"Stobbe","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/19\/11\/17107\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:17:23Z","timestamp":1760217443000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/19\/11\/17107"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,24]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,11]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules191117107"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules191117107","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,24]]}}}