{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T18:13:12Z","timestamp":1784916792480,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]],"date-time":"2015-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1430956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Education, Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia","award":["R.J130000.7809.4F284"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R.J130000.7809.4F284"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation are widely accepted as key hallmarks of obesity-induced skeletal muscle insulin resistance. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the functional roles of an anti-inflammatory compound, celastrol, in mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance induced by antimycin A (AMA) in human skeletal muscle cells. We found that celastrol treatment improved insulin-stimulated glucose uptake activity of AMA-treated cells, apparently via PI3K\/Akt pathways, with significant enhancement of mitochondrial activities. Furthermore, celastrol prevented increased levels of cellular oxidative damage where the production of several pro-inflammatory cytokines in cultures cells was greatly reduced. Celastrol significantly increased protein phosphorylation of insulin signaling cascades with amplified expression of AMPK protein and attenuated NF-\u03baB and PKC \u03b8 activation in human skeletal muscle treated with AMA. The improvement of insulin signaling pathways by celastrol was also accompanied by augmented GLUT4 protein expression. Taken together, these results suggest that celastrol may be advocated for use as a potential therapeutic molecule to protect against mitochondrial dysfunction-induced insulin resistance in human skeletal muscle cells.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules20058242","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]],"date-time":"2015-05-07T10:54:29Z","timestamp":1430996069000},"page":"8242-8269","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["RETRACTED: Celastrol Protects against Antimycin A-Induced Insulin Resistance in Human Skeletal Muscle Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Mohamad","family":"Abu Bakar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kian-Kai","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Innovation Centre in Agritechnology for Advanced Bioprocessing (ICA),  Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohamad","family":"Sarmidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Centre in Agritechnology for Advanced Bioprocessing (ICA),  Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Institute of Bioproduct Development, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harisun","family":"Yaakob","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Bioproduct Development, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hasniza","family":"Zaman Huri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"},{"name":"Clinical Investigation Centre, 13th Floor Main Tower, University Malaya Medical Centre,  59100 Lembah Pantai, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2013). IDF Diabetes Atlas, International Diabetes Federation. [6th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abu Bakar, M.H., Sarmidi, M.R., Cheng, K.K., Ali Khan, A., Chua, L.S., Zaman Huri, H., and Yaakob, H. (2015). Metabolomics-The Complementary Field in Systems Biology: A Review on Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes. Mol. Biosyst.","DOI":"10.1039\/C5MB00158G"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hafizi Abu Bakar, M., Kian Kai, C., Wan Hassan, W.N., Sarmidi, M.R., Yaakob, H., and Zaman Huri, H. (2014). Mitochondrial dysfunction as a central event for mechanisms underlying insulin resistance: The roles of long chain fatty acids. Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2601"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1007\/s13105-012-0154-2","article-title":"Oxidative stress and inflammation interactions in human obesity","volume":"68","author":"Ryan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa031314","article-title":"Impaired Mitochondrial Activity in the Insulin-Resistant Offspring of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"350","author":"Petersen","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.53.3.542","article-title":"Reduced Lipid Oxidation in Skeletal Muscle From Type 2 Diabetic Subjects May Be of Genetic Origin: Evidence From Cultured Myotubes","volume":"53","author":"Gaster","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2011.138","article-title":"The role of mitochondria in insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"8","author":"Szendroedi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2010.05625.x","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin insensitivity: Implication of mitochondrial role in type 2 diabetes","volume":"1201","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-11-30","article-title":"Mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle insulin resistance induced by fatty acids: Importance of the mitochondrial function","volume":"11","author":"Martins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-079X.2011.00894.x","article-title":"Impaired mitochondrial complex III and melatonin responsive reactive oxygen species generation in kidney mitochondria of db\/db mice","volume":"51","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Pineal Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1702","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2011.04.015","article-title":"Mitochondrial bioenergetics is not impaired in nonobese subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"60","author":"Chattopadhyay","year":"2011","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.2010.02124.x","article-title":"Regulation of skeletal muscle mitochondrial function: Genes to proteins","volume":"199","author":"Lanza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1152\/nips.01459.2003","article-title":"How Free Fatty Acids Inhibit Glucose Utilization in Human Skeletal Muscle","volume":"19","author":"Roden","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuzefovych, L.V., Schuler, A.M., Chen, J., Alvarez, D.F., Eide, L., LeDoux, S.P., Wilson, G.L., and Rachek, L.I. (2013). Alteration of mitochondrial function and insulin sensitivity in primary mouse skeletal muscle cells isolated from transgenic and knockout mice: Role of OGG1. Endocrinology.","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2013-1076"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Aguilera, A., Rull, A., Rodr\u00edguez-Gallego, E., Riera-Borrull, M., Luciano-Mateo, F., Camps, J., Men\u00e9ndez, J.A., and Joven, J. (2013). Mitochondrial Dysfunction: A Basic Mechanism in Inflammation-Related Non-Communicable Diseases and Therapeutic Opportunities. Mediat. Inflamm., 2013, Article ID 135698.","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/135698"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2010.87","article-title":"Celastrol: A New Therapeutic Potential of Traditional Chinese Medicine","volume":"23","author":"Morita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2006.08.014","article-title":"Inhibition of NF-\u03baB activation through targeting I\u03baB kinase by celastrol, a quinone methide triterpenoid","volume":"72","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2727","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2006-10-050807","article-title":"Celastrol, a novel triterpene, potentiates TNF-induced apoptosis and suppresses invasion of tumor cells by inhibiting NF-\u03baB\u2013regulated gene products and TAK1-mediated NF-\u03baB activation","volume":"109","author":"Sethi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e58391","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0058391","article-title":"Celastrol Suppresses Tumor Cell Growth through Targeting an AR-ERG-NF-\u03baB Pathway in TMPRSS2\/ERG Fusion Gene Expressing Prostate Cancer","volume":"8","author":"Shao","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e62068","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062068","article-title":"Celastrol, an NF-\u03baB Inhibitor, Improves Insulin Resistance and Attenuates Renal Injury in db\/db Mice","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1038\/ajh.2010.75","article-title":"Celastrol Attenuates Hypertension-Induced Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells via Induction of Heme Oxygenase-1","volume":"23","author":"Yu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5265","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.12838","article-title":"Celastrol protects ischaemic myocardium through a heat shock response with up-regulation of haeme oxygenase-1","volume":"171","author":"Cailhier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22227","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms151222227","article-title":"Amelioration of Mitochondrial Dysfunction-Induced Insulin Resistance in Differentiated 3T3-L1 Adipocytes via Inhibition of NF-\u03baB Pathways","volume":"15","author":"Sarmidi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.24374","article-title":"Celastrol attenuates adipokine resistin-associated matrix interaction and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"114","author":"Kang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"172","article-title":"Celastrol ameliorates cytokine toxicity and pro-inflammatory immune responses by suppressing NF-kB activation in RINm5F beta cells","volume":"48","author":"Ju","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochem. Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e26634","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0026634","article-title":"Quantitative Proteomics Reveals Cellular Targets of Celastrol","volume":"6","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.12096","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to impairment of insulin sensitivity and adiponectin secretion in adipocytes","volume":"280","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-0340","article-title":"Insulin Stimulates Mitochondrial Fusion and Function in Cardiomyocytes via the Akt-mTOR-NF\u03baB-Opa-1 Signaling Pathway","volume":"63","author":"Parra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1017\/S1462399411002109","article-title":"PI3K\/AKT, MAPK and AMPK signalling: Protein kinases in glucose homeostasis","volume":"14","author":"Schultze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2963","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M209995200","article-title":"NF-\u03baB and I\u03baB\u03b1 Are Found in the Mitochondria: Evidence for Regulation of Mitochondrial Gene Expression by NF-\u03baB","volume":"278","author":"Cogswell","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3349","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2012.230185","article-title":"Biomarkers of mitochondrial content in skeletal muscle of healthy young human subjects","volume":"590","author":"Larsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2009-0003","article-title":"The role of mitochondria in the pathophysiology of skeletal muscle insulin resistance","volume":"31","author":"Bao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1900\/RDS.2009.6.13","article-title":"Adenosine Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) as a New Target for Antidiabetic Drugs: A Review on Metabolic, Pharmacological and Chemical Considerations","volume":"6","author":"Gruzman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Diabet. Stud."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45304","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.C400186200","article-title":"Protein Kinase C \u03b8 Inhibits Insulin Signaling by Phosphorylating IRS1 at Ser1101","volume":"279","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3904\/kjim.2010.25.2.119","article-title":"Molecular mechanism of insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes","volume":"25","author":"Choi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Korean J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2008.06.006","article-title":"Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes and Obesity","volume":"37","author":"Mogensen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"444","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.014506","article-title":"Altered mitochondrial dynamics contributes to endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus","volume":"124","author":"Shenouda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.05603-11","article-title":"Mitochondrial fission contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle","volume":"32","author":"Jheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvp305","article-title":"NF-\u03baB-induced oxidative stress contributes to mitochondrial and cardiac dysfunction in type II diabetes","volume":"85","author":"Mariappan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A15","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2010.129593a","article-title":"Inflammatory response is modulated by mitochondrial dysfunction in cultured normal human chondrocytes","volume":"69","author":"Lema","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H37","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.01346.2006","article-title":"Increased mitochondrial H2O2 production promotes endothelial NF-\u03baB activation in aged rat arteries","volume":"293","author":"Ungvari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Hear. Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2927","DOI":"10.1002\/art.34508","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction increases inflammatory responsiveness to cytokines in normal human chondrocytes","volume":"64","author":"Blanco","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e92810","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0092810","article-title":"Impaired Mitochondrial Dynamics and Bioenergetics in Diabetic Skeletal Muscle","volume":"9","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5187","DOI":"10.2741\/3074","article-title":"The implication of proinflammatory cytokines in type 2 diabetes","volume":"13","author":"Guest","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2010.12.008","article-title":"NF-\u03baB, inflammation and metabolic disease","volume":"13","author":"Baker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e95846","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0095846","article-title":"NF-Kappa B Modulation Is Involved in Celastrol Induced Human Multiple Myeloma Cell Apoptosis","volume":"9","author":"Ni","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.28810","article-title":"Simultaneous NF-\u03baB inhibition and E-cadherin upregulation mediate mutually synergistic anticancer activity of celastrol and SAHA in vitro and in vivo","volume":"135","author":"Zheng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2014.07.010","article-title":"Celastrol ameliorates HIV-1 Tat-induced inflammatory responses via NF-kappaB and AP-1 inhibition and heme oxygenase-1 induction in astrocytes","volume":"280","author":"Youn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e93151","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0093151","article-title":"Celastrol Blocks Interleukin-6 Gene Expression via Downregulation of NF-\u03baB in Prostate Carcinoma Cells","volume":"9","author":"Chiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1096","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00238.2010","article-title":"Different effects of oleate vs. palmitate on mitochondrial function, apoptosis, and insulin signaling in L6 skeletal muscle cells: Role of oxidative stress","volume":"299","author":"Yuzefovych","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04634","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species have a causal role in multiple forms of insulin resistance","volume":"440","author":"Houstis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1071914","article-title":"The I\u03baB-NF-\u03baB Signaling Module: Temporal Control and Selective Gene Activation","volume":"298","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0105-2896.2006.00375.x","article-title":"Circuitry of nuclear factor \u03baB signaling","volume":"210","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2939","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.54.10.2939","article-title":"Tumor Necrosis Factor-\u03b1 Induces Skeletal Muscle Insulin Resistance in Healthy Human Subjects via Inhibition of Akt Substrate 160 Phosphorylation","volume":"54","author":"Plomgaard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35298","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M405203200","article-title":"Insulin Resistance Due to Phosphorylation of Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 at Serine 302","volume":"279","author":"Werner","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M101521200","article-title":"Phosphorylation of Ser307 in Insulin Receptor Substrate-1 Blocks Interactions with the Insulin Receptor and Inhibits Insulin Action","volume":"277","author":"Aguirre","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1038\/nature01137","article-title":"A central role for JNK in obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"420","author":"Hirosumi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005427919188","article-title":"Mitochondrial Oxygen Radical Generation and Leak: Sites of Production in States 4 and 3, Organ Specificity, and Relation to Aging and Longevity","volume":"31","author":"Barja","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Bioenerg. Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7244","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M510461200","article-title":"Opposite Transcriptional Regulation in Skeletal Muscle of AMP-activated Protein Kinase \u03b33 R225Q Transgenic Versus Knock-out Mice","volume":"281","author":"Nilsson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00032.2003","article-title":"Mouse Models of Insulin Resistance","volume":"84","author":"Kahn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-0516","article-title":"Skeletal Muscle GLUT1 Transporter Protein Expression and Basal Leg Glucose Uptake Are Reduced in Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"90","author":"Ciaraldi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.50.6.1324","article-title":"GLUT4 Is Reduced in Slow Muscle Fibers of Type 2 Diabetic Patients: Is Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes a Slow, Type 1 Fiber Disease?","volume":"50","author":"Gaster","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2005.05.006","article-title":"NF-\u03baB, MEF2A, MEF2D and HIF1-a involvement on insulin- and contraction-induced regulation of GLUT4 gene expression in soleus muscle","volume":"240","author":"Silva","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"1","article-title":"AMPK and Exercise: Glucose Uptake and Insulin Sensitivity","volume":"37","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E867","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00207.2006","article-title":"AMP-activated protein kinase and the regulation of glucose transport","volume":"291","author":"Fujii","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol.\u2014Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2008.06.004","article-title":"The anti-diabetic AMPK activator AICAR reduces IL-6 and IL-8 in human adipose tissue and skeletal muscle cells","volume":"292","author":"Lihn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0263","article-title":"Elevated NF-\u03baB Activation Is Conserved in Human Myocytes Cultured From Obese Type 2 Diabetic Patients and Attenuated by AMP-Activated Protein Kinase","volume":"60","author":"Green","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2008.11.014","article-title":"Lipid induced overexpression of NF-\u03baB in skeletal muscle cells is linked to insulin resistance","volume":"1792","author":"Barma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta\u2014Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4758","DOI":"10.1158\/0008-5472.CAN-05-4529","article-title":"Celastrol, a Triterpene Extracted from the Chinese \u201cThunder of God Vine,\u201d Is a Potent Proteasome Inhibitor and Suppresses Human Prostate Cancer Growth in Nude Mice","volume":"66","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2013.02.015","article-title":"Protection from antimycin A-induced mitochondrial dysfunction by Nelumbo nucifera seed extracts","volume":"36","author":"Im","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2011.03.023","article-title":"Pongamol from Pongamia pinnata stimulates glucose uptake by increasing surface GLUT4 level in skeletal muscle cells","volume":"339","author":"Tamrakar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/molecules31152576","type":"retraction","label":"Retraction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]],"date-time":"2015-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1430956800000}}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/20\/5\/8242\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T07:36:26Z","timestamp":1784878586000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/20\/5\/8242"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]]},"references-count":71,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules20058242"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules20058242","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,7]]}}}