{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:42:04Z","timestamp":1792806124039,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,8]],"date-time":"2015-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1433721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NC State Research Innovation and Seed Funding Program","award":["2014-0793"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014-0793"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04b6b6f76","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) employing the BODIPY-based photosensitizer 2,6-diiodo-1,3,5,7-tetramethyl-8-(N-methyl-4-pyridyl)-4,4\u2032-difluoro-boradiazaindacene (DIMPy-BODIPY) was explored in an in vitro assay against six species of bacteria (eight total strains), three species of yeast, and three viruses as a complementary approach to their current drug-based or non-existent treatments. Our best results achieved a noteworthy 5\u20136 log unit reduction in CFU at 0.1 \u03bcM for Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC-2913), methicillin-resistant S. aureus (ATCC-44), and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (ATCC-2320), a 4\u20135 log unit reduction for Acinetobacter baumannii ATCC-19606 (0.25 \u03bcM), multidrug resistant A. baumannii ATCC-1605 (0.1 \u03bcM), Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC-97 (0.5 \u03bcM), and Klebsiella pneumoniae ATCC-2146 (1 \u03bcM), and a 3 log unit reduction for Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2155 (ATCC-700084). A 5 log unit reduction in CFU was observed for Candida albicans ATCC-90028 (1 \u03bcM) and Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC-64538 (0.5 \u03bcM), and a 3 log unit reduction was noted for Candida glabrata ATCC-15545 (1 \u03bcM). Infectivity was reduced by 6 log units in dengue 1 (0.1 \u03bcM), by  5 log units (0.5 \u03bcM) in vesicular stomatitis virus, and by 2 log units (5 \u03bcM) in human adenovirus-5. Overall, the results demonstrate that DIMPy-BODIPY exhibits antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal photodynamic inactivation at nanomolar concentrations and short illumination times.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules200610604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,10]],"date-time":"2015-06-10T14:05:45Z","timestamp":1433945145000},"page":"10604-10621","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":99,"title":["Antiviral, Antifungal and Antibacterial Activities of a  BODIPY-Based Photosensitizer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"Bradley","family":"Carpenter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xingci","family":"Situ","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"Scholle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7614, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juergen","family":"Bartelmess","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Walter","family":"Weare","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reza","family":"Ghiladi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8204, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2006.00038.x","article-title":"The fallacies of hope: Will we discover new antibiotics to combat pathogenic bacteria in time?","volume":"30","author":"Vicente","year":"2006","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2008.09.009","article-title":"Low hanging fruit in infectious disease drug development","volume":"11","author":"Kraus","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2012.01087.x","article-title":"Strategies to potentiate antimicrobial photoinactivation by overcoming resistant phenotypes","volume":"88","author":"Vera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2012.00120","article-title":"Concepts and principles of photodynamic therapy as an alternative antifungal discovery platform","volume":"3","author":"Dai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.4161\/viru.2.6.17889","article-title":"All you need is light: Antimicrobial photoinactivation as an evolving and emerging discovery strategy against infectious disease","volume":"2","author":"Dai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pdpdt.2009.10.008","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy for localized infections\u2014State of the art","volume":"6","author":"Dai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photodiagn. Photodyn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2010.03.002","article-title":"\u2018Safe\u2019 photoantimicrobials for skin and soft-tissue infections","volume":"36","author":"Wainwright","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7244","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00776a003","article-title":"Radiationless decay of singlet molecular oxygen in solution. Experimental and theoretical study of electronic-to-vibrational energy transfer","volume":"94","author":"Merkel","year":"1972","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1002\/lsm.20361","article-title":"Photodynamic therapy in the treatment of microbial infections: Basic principles and perspective applications","volume":"38","author":"Jori","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lasers Surg. Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3390\/md8010091","article-title":"Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy: Study of bacterial recovery viability and potential development of resistance after treatment","volume":"8","author":"Tavares","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.2174\/138955709788681582","article-title":"A new strategy to destroy antibiotic resistant microorganisms: Antimicrobial photodynamic treatment","volume":"9","author":"Maisch","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mini Rev. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-1097.2012.01117.x","article-title":"Porphyrin-cellulose nanocrystals: A photobactericidal material that exhibits broad spectrum antimicrobial activity","volume":"88","author":"Carpenter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkp278","article-title":"Highly efficient in vitro photodynamic inactivation of mycobacterium smegmatis","volume":"64","author":"Feese","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.1990.tb03814.x","article-title":"Photosensitizing activity of water- and lipid-soluble phthalocyanines on escherichia coli","volume":"59","author":"Bertoloni","year":"1990","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-695X.1997.tb01074.x","article-title":"A study of photobactericidal activity in the phenothiazinium series","volume":"19","author":"Wainwright","year":"1997","journal-title":"FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.201200351","article-title":"Stable synthetic bacteriochlorins for photodynamic therapy: Role of dicyano peripheral groups, central metal substitution (2h, Zn, Pd), and cremophor el delivery","volume":"7","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wainwright, M., Antczak, J., Baca, M., Loughran, C., and Meegan, K. (2015). Phenothiazinium photoantimicrobials with basic side chains. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B, in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2014.12.017"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2014.02.013","article-title":"In defence of \u2018dye therapy\u2019","volume":"44","author":"Wainwright","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1623","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02788-13","article-title":"In vitro photodynamic inactivation of plant-pathogenic fungi colletotrichum acutatum and colletotrichum gloeosporioides with novel phenothiazinium photosensitizers","volume":"80","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1111\/php.12264","article-title":"Membrane damage efficiency of phenothiazinium photosensitizers","volume":"90","author":"Bacellar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Photochem. Photobiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1039\/b617972j","article-title":"The chemistry of bodipy: A new el dorado for fluorescence tools","volume":"31","author":"Ziessel","year":"2007","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4891","DOI":"10.1021\/cr078381n","article-title":"Bodipy dyes and their derivatives: Syntheses and spectroscopic properties","volume":"107","author":"Loudet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4603","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201107957","article-title":"Synthesis of [18f]bodipy: Bifunctional reporter for hybrid optical\/positron emission tomography imaging","volume":"51","author":"Hendricks","year":"2012","journal-title":"Angew. Chem."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tet.2011.11.070","article-title":"Synthesis and functionalization of new polyhalogenated bodipy dyes. Study of their photophysical properties and singlet oxygen generation","volume":"68","author":"Ortiz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tetrahedron"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4845","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tet.2013.04.064","article-title":"Synthesis and photo-physical properties of a series of bodipy dyes","volume":"69","author":"Banfi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tetrahedron"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jphotobiol.2012.05.007","article-title":"Synthesis and antibacterial activity of novel cationic bodipy photosensitizers","volume":"114","author":"Caruso","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7337","DOI":"10.1021\/jm100585j","article-title":"Light induced antimicrobial properties of a brominated boron difluoride (bf(2)) chelated tetraarylazadipyrromethene photosensitizer","volume":"53","author":"Frimannsson","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1086\/595011","article-title":"Bad bugs, no drugs: No eskape! An update from the infectious diseases society of america","volume":"48","author":"Boucher","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1086\/591861","article-title":"Nhsn annual update: Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens associated with healthcare-associated infections: Annual summary of data reported to the national healthcare safety network at the centers for disease control and prevention, 2006\u20132007","volume":"29","author":"Hidron","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dyepig.2012.11.017","article-title":"Preparation and characterization of multi-cationic bodipys and their synthetically versatile precursors","volume":"97","author":"Bartelmess","year":"2013","journal-title":"Dyes Pigment."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S1","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qco.0000393483.10270.ff","article-title":"Current challenges in the management of the infected patient","volume":"24","author":"Nicolau","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1537-2995.1991.31291142938.x","article-title":"Inactivation of viruses in blood with aluminum phthalocyanine derivatives","volume":"31","author":"Horowitz","year":"1991","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/1011-1344(92)85053-W","article-title":"Photodynamic inactivation of retroviruses by phthalocyanines: The effects of sulphonation, metal ligand and fluoride","volume":"13","author":"Hoeben","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/1011-1344(93)06949-4","article-title":"Photodynamic inactivation of herpes viruses with phthalocyanine derivatives","volume":"22","author":"Smetana","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/1011-1344(95)07198-9","article-title":"Studies on photoinactivation by various phthalocyanines of a free or replicating non-enveloped virus","volume":"31","author":"Gaspard","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Photochem. Photobiol. B"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1002\/jpp.328","article-title":"Basic principles of photodynamic therapy","volume":"5","author":"Macdonald","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Porphyr. Phthalocyanines"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1994.tb01289.x","article-title":"Permeability of the cell wall of mycobacterium smegmatis","volume":"14","author":"Trias","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00715-09","article-title":"Klebsiella pneumoniae acrab efflux pump contributes to antimicrobial resistance and virulence","volume":"54","author":"Padilla","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1097\/QAD.0b013e328322ffac","article-title":"Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV\/aids","volume":"23","author":"Park","year":"2009","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2006.09.003","article-title":"The capsular dynamics of cryptococcus neoformans","volume":"14","author":"McFadden","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M509465200","article-title":"The physical properties of the capsular polysaccharides from cryptococcus neoformans suggest features for capsule construction","volume":"281","author":"McFadden","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2164(09)01204-0","article-title":"The capsule of the fungal pathogen cryptococcus neoformans","volume":"68","author":"Zaragoza","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2009.04.043","article-title":"The elastic properties of the cryptococcus neoformans capsule","volume":"97","author":"Frases","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2663","DOI":"10.1039\/c3nj00426k","article-title":"Meso-pyridyl bodipys with tunable chemical, optical and electrochemical properties","volume":"37","author":"Bartelmess","year":"2013","journal-title":"New J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Parish, T., and Brown, A.C. (2009). Methods in Molecular Biology, Humana Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1021\/mz200116k","article-title":"Synthesis of guanidinium functionalized polycarbodiimides and their antibacterial activities","volume":"1","author":"Peng","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACS Macro Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1063\/1.555934","article-title":"Quantum yields of photosensitized formation of the lowest electronically excited singlet state of molecular oxygen in solution","volume":"22","author":"Wilkinson","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2766","DOI":"10.1021\/ja800333y","article-title":"Accessing the triplet excited state in perylenediimides","volume":"130","author":"Rachford","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3528","DOI":"10.1021\/bm200718s","article-title":"Photobactericidal porphyrin-cellulose nanocrystals: Synthesis, characterization, and antimicrobial properties","volume":"12","author":"Feese","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/20\/6\/10604\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:47:37Z","timestamp":1760215657000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/20\/6\/10604"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,8]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,6]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules200610604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules200610604","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,8]]}}}