{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T12:40:57Z","timestamp":1774874457977,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]],"date-time":"2020-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580428800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article reports new measurements of laser-induced plasma hypersonic expansion measurements of diatomic molecular cyanide (CN). Focused, high-peak-power 1064 nm Q-switched radiation of the order of 1 TW\/cm     2     generated optical breakdown plasma in a cell containing a 1:1 molar gas mixture of N     2     and CO     2     at a fixed pressure of 1.1 \u00d7 10     5     Pascal and in a 100 mL\/min flow of the mixture. Line-of-sight (LOS) analysis of recorded molecular spectra indicated the outgoing shockwave at expansion speeds well in excess of Mach 5. Spectra of atomic carbon confirmed increased electron density near the shockwave, and, equally, molecular CN spectra revealed higher excitation temperature near the shockwave. Results were consistent with corresponding high-speed shadowgraphs obtained by visualization with an effective shutter speed of 5 nanoseconds. In addition, LOS analysis and the application of integral inversion techniques allow inferences about the spatiotemporal plasma distribution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25030615","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]],"date-time":"2020-01-31T05:55:46Z","timestamp":1580450146000},"page":"615","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Laser-Plasma Spatiotemporal Cyanide Spectroscopy and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1286-7405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christian G.","family":"Parigger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Physics and Astronomy Department, University of Tennessee, University of Tennessee Space Institute, Center for Laser Applications, 411 B.H. Goethert Parkway, Tullahoma, TN 37388, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher M.","family":"Helstern","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physics and Astronomy Department, University of Tennessee, University of Tennessee Space Institute, Center for Laser Applications, 411 B.H. Goethert Parkway, Tullahoma, TN 37388, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin S.","family":"Jordan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nuclear Engineering Department, University of Tennessee, Tickle College of Engineering, 1412 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN 37912, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5052-5580","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David M.","family":"Surmick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physics and Applied Physics Department, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7095-4593","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Splinter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellinq Medical, Van der Waals Park 22, 9351 VC Leek, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"25","article-title":"Molecular Emission Spectroscopy of Cyanide in Laser-induced Plasma","volume":"8","author":"Parigger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Rev. At. Mol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1080\/15459624.2018.1445260","article-title":"Airborne contaminants during controlled residential fires","volume":"15","author":"Fent","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Occup. Environ. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.18.10.107002","article-title":"Optical parametric oscillator-based photoacoustic detection of hydrogen cyanide for biomedical applications","volume":"18","author":"Arslanov","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-5-1229-2012","article-title":"A gas chromatographic instrument for measurement of hydrogen cyanide in the lower atmosphere","volume":"5","author":"Ambrose","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"62","article-title":"Cyanide and society: A critical review","volume":"4","author":"Mudder","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Miner. Process. Environ. Protect."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1202\/0002-8894(2000)061<0636:COFEDF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Characterization of firefighter exposures during fire overhaul","volume":"61","author":"Burgess","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12361","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201702952","article-title":"Cyanide-Free and Broadly Applicable Enantioselective Synthetic Platform for Chiral Nitriles through a Biocatalytic Approach","volume":"56","author":"Betke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Edit."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"3105","article-title":"Cyanide-free Enantioselective Synthesis of Nitriles: Synthetic Proof of a Biocatalytic Concept and Mechanistic Insights","volume":"6","author":"Metzner","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Cat. Chem"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"5198","article-title":"Approaching Bulk Chemical Nitriles from Alkenes: A Hydrogen Cyanide-Free Approach through a Combination of Hydroformylation and Biocatalysis","volume":"9","author":"Plass","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. Chem. Soc. Catal."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2004.09.005","article-title":"Alternatives to cyanide in the gold mining industry: What prospects for the future","volume":"14","author":"Hilson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2004.04.061","article-title":"Ammonia, nitrous oxide and hydrogen cyanide emissions from five passenger vehicles","volume":"334\u2212335","author":"Karlsson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.07.040","article-title":"An integrated biological approach for treatment of cyanidation wastewater","volume":"571","author":"Mekuto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2015.01.017","article-title":"Precious metal recovery from waste printed circuit boards using cyanide and non-cyanide lixiviants\u2014A review","volume":"45","author":"Akcil","year":"2015","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1039\/c3em00410d","article-title":"Wetland-based passive treatment systems for gold ore processing effluents containing residual cyanide, metals and nitrogen species","volume":"15","author":"Loredo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2016.01.050","article-title":"Emissions of hydrogen cyanide from on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles","volume":"131","author":"Moussa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1021\/es061402v","article-title":"Hydrogen cyanide exhaust emissions from in-use motor vehicles","volume":"41","author":"Baum","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012042","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/548\/1\/012042","article-title":"Differential Spectral Imaging of the CN Violet Band in Laser-Induced Plasmas on TNT Simulant Molecules","volume":"548","author":"Merten","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecs.2007.02.004","article-title":"The oxidation of hydrogen cyanide and related chemistry","volume":"34","author":"Dagaut","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Energy Combust."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cremers, D.A., and Radziemski, L.J. (2006). Handbook of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470093013"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"45","article-title":"Imaging of Laser-induced Plasma Expansion Dynamics in Ambient Air","volume":"7","author":"Gautam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Rev. At. Mol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"175","article-title":"The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion.\u2014II. The atomic explosion of 1945","volume":"201","author":"Taylor","year":"1950","journal-title":"Proc. Roy. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"073302","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3699368","article-title":"Optical breakdown threshold investigation of 1064 nm laser induced air plasmas","volume":"111","author":"Thiyagarajan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.5.001550","article-title":"Laser Beams and Resonators","volume":"5","author":"Kogelnik","year":"1966","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2020, January 11). Technical Note: Gaussian Beam Optics. Available online: https:\/\/www.newport.com\/n\/gaussian-beam-optics."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/7.4.308","article-title":"A simplex method for function minimization","volume":"7","author":"Nelder","year":"1965","journal-title":"Comput. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sab.2015.02.018","article-title":"Computation of diatomic molecular spectra for selected transitions of aluminum monoxide, cyanide, diatomic carbon, and titanium monoxide","volume":"107","author":"Parigger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part B At. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parigger, C.G., and Hornkohl, J.O. (2019). Quantum Mechanics of the Diatomic Molecule with Applications, IOP Publishing.","DOI":"10.1088\/978-0-7503-1989-8"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Dackman, M. (2014). Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for Analysis of High-Density Methane-Oxygen Mixtures. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Tennessee]."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Griem, H.R. (1974). Spectral Line Broadening by Plasmas, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"43","article-title":"Radial electron density measurements in laser-induced plasma from Abel inverted hydrogen Balmer beta line profiles","volume":"6","author":"Parigger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Rev. At. Mol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012012","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/810\/1\/012012","article-title":"Self-absorption characteristics of measured laser-induced plasma line shapes","volume":"810","author":"Parigger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1515\/zna-1991-0715","article-title":"A New Method for Numerical Abel-Inversion","volume":"46a","author":"Pretzler","year":"1991","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1515\/zna-1992-0906","article-title":"Comparison of Different Methods of Abel Inversion Using Computer Simulated and Experimental Side-On Data","volume":"47a","author":"Pretzler","year":"1992","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/25\/3\/615\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T08:53:21Z","timestamp":1760172801000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/25\/3\/615"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules25030615"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules25030615","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,31]]}}}