{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:58:06Z","timestamp":1787029086091,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,7]],"date-time":"2020-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1594080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Plant-derived anthraquinones were evaluated in cell assays for their inhibitory activities against the parasitic protozoa Trichomonas vaginalis human strain G3 that causes the sexually transmitted disease trichomoniasis in women, Tritrichomonas foetus bovine strain D1 that causes sexually transmitted diseases in farm animals (bulls, cows, and pigs), Tritrichomonas foetus-like strain C1 that causes diarrhea in domestic animals (cats and dogs), and bacteria and fungi. The anthraquinones assessed for their inhibitory activity were anthraquinone, aloe-emodin (1,8-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethylanthraquinone), anthrarufin (1,5-dihydroxyanthraquinone), chrysazin (1,8-dihydroxyanthraquinone), emodin (1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methylanthraquinone), purpurin (1,2,4-trihydroxyanthraquinone), and rhein (1,8-dihydroxy-3-carboxyanthraquinone). Their activities were determined in terms of IC50 values, defined as the concentration that inhibits 50% of the cells under the test conditions and calculated from linear dose response plots for the parasitic protozoa, and zone of inhibition for bacteria and fungi, respectively. The results show that the different substituents on the anthraquinone ring seem to influence the relative potency. Analysis of the structure\u2013activity relationships in protozoa indicates that the aloe-emodin and chrysazin with the highest biological activities merit further study for their potential to help treat the diseases in women and domestic and farm animals. Emodin also exhibited antifungal activity against Candida albicans. The suggested mechanism of action and the additional reported beneficial biological properties of anthraquinones suggest that they have the potential to ameliorate a broad spectrum of human diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25133101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,7]],"date-time":"2020-07-07T10:41:09Z","timestamp":1594118469000},"page":"3101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["The Inhibitory Activity of Anthraquinones against Pathogenic Protozoa, Bacteria, and Fungi and the Relationship to Structure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Mendel","family":"Friedman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Healthy Processed Foods Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2558-4770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4682-1368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rani","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel N.","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tina A.","family":"Phan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina M.","family":"Hamada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rima","family":"Panchel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina C.","family":"Tam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foodborne Toxins Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0944-6685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jong H.","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foodborne Toxins Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luisa W.","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Foodborne Toxins Detection and Prevention Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA 94710, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirkwood M.","family":"Land","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1308","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2014.1857","article-title":"Effect of emodin on the cariogenic properties of Streptococcus mutans and the development of caries in rats","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. 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