{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T15:44:56Z","timestamp":1791387896310,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":255,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,8]],"date-time":"2020-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607385600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Conacyt Mexico","award":["CB-A1-S-8989"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CB-A1-S-8989"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens, it is necessary to develop options to fight infections caused by these agents. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a cationic nonheme multifunctional glycoprotein of the innate immune system of mammals that provides numerous benefits. Lf is bacteriostatic and\/or bactericidal, can stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation, facilitate iron absorption, improve neural development and cognition, promote bone growth, prevent cancer and exert anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects. Lactoferrin is present in colostrum and milk and is also produced by the secondary granules of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, which store this glycoprotein and release it at sites of infection. Lf is also present in many fluids and exocrine secretions, on the surfaces of the digestive, respiratory and reproductive systems that are commonly exposed to pathogens. Apo-Lf (an iron-free molecule) can be microbiostatic due to its ability to capture ferric iron, blocking the availability of host iron to pathogens. However, apo-Lf is mostly microbicidal via its interaction with the microbial surface, causing membrane damage and altering its permeability function. Lf can inhibit viral entry by binding to cell receptors or viral particles. Lf is also able to counter different important mechanisms evolved by microbial pathogens to infect and invade the host, such as adherence, colonization, invasion, production of biofilms and production of virulence factors such as proteases and toxins. Lf can also cause mitochondrial and caspase-dependent regulated cell death and apoptosis-like in pathogenic yeasts. All of these mechanisms are important targets for treatment with Lf. Holo-Lf (the iron-saturated molecule) can contain up to two ferric ions and can also be microbicidal against some pathogens. On the other hand, lactoferricins (Lfcins) are peptides derived from the N-terminus of Lf that are produced by proteolysis with pepsin under acidic conditions, and they cause similar effects on pathogens to those caused by the parental Lf. Synthetic analog peptides comprising the N-terminus Lf region similarly exhibit potent antimicrobial properties. Importantly, there are no reported pathogens that are resistant to Lf and Lfcins; in addition, Lf and Lfcins have shown a synergistic effect with antimicrobial and antiviral drugs. Due to the Lf properties being microbiostatic, microbicidal, anti-inflammatory and an immune modulator, it represents an excellent natural alternative either alone or as adjuvant in the combat to antibiotic multidrug-resistant bacteria and other pathogens. This review aimed to evaluate the data that appeared in the literature about the effects of Lf and its derived peptides on pathogenic bacteria, protozoa, fungi and viruses and how Lf and Lfcins inhibit the mechanisms developed by these pathogens to cause disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25245763","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,10]],"date-time":"2020-12-10T22:15:36Z","timestamp":1607638536000},"page":"5763","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":103,"title":["Lactoferrin and Its Derived Peptides: An Alternative for Combating Virulence Mechanisms Developed by Pathogens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Daniela","family":"Zarzosa-Moreno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Celular, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Avalos-G\u00f3mez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Celular, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico"},{"name":"Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Coyoac\u00e1n 04510, CdMx, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luisa Sof\u00eda","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Texcalco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitl\u00e1n, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Cuautitl\u00e1n Izcalli 54714, Estado de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erick","family":"Torres-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitl\u00e1n, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Cuautitl\u00e1n Izcalli 54714, Estado de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ricardo","family":"Ram\u00edrez-Mondrag\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitl\u00e1n, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Cuautitl\u00e1n Izcalli 54714, Estado de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0080-7600","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Omar","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Ram\u00edrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitl\u00e1n, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Cuautitl\u00e1n Izcalli 54714, Estado de M\u00e9xico, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Serrano-Luna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Celular, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mireya","family":"de la Garza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Celular, Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Zacatenco 07360, CdMx, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.1148","article-title":"The regulation of iron transport","volume":"40","author":"Frazer","year":"2014","journal-title":"BioFactors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1097\/MCO.0000000000000285","article-title":"Iron homeostasis: Transport, metabolism, and regulation","volume":"19","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. 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