{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T01:28:34Z","timestamp":1789435714224,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1611273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["plan of basic scientific research no. 718\/20 dated 03\/06\/2020, project no. 0718-2020-0036"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["plan of basic scientific research no. 718\/20 dated 03\/06\/2020, project no. 0718-2020-0036"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Carbonized elastomer-based composites (CECs) possess a number of attractive features in terms of thermomechanical and electromechanical performance, durability in aggressive media and facile net-shape formability, but their relatively low ductility and strength limit their suitability for structural engineering applications. Prospective applications such as structural elements of micro-electro-mechanical systems MEMS can be envisaged since smaller principal dimensions reduce the susceptibility of components to residual stress accumulation during carbonization and to brittle fracture in general. We report the results of in situ in-SEM study of microdeformation and fracture behavior of CECs based on nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) elastomeric matrices filled with carbon and silicon carbide. Nanostructured carbon composite materials were manufactured via compounding of elastomeric substance with carbon and SiC fillers using mixing rolling mill, vulcanization, and low-temperature carbonization. Double-edge notched tensile (DENT) specimens of vulcanized and carbonized elastomeric composites were subjected to in situ tensile testing in the chamber of the scanning electron microscope (SEM) Tescan Vega 3 using a Deben microtest 1 kN tensile stage. The series of acquired SEM images were analyzed by means of digital image correlation (DIC) using Ncorr open-source software to map the spatial distribution of strain. These maps were correlated with finite element modeling (FEM) simulations to refine the values of elastic moduli. Moreover, the elastic moduli were derived from unloading curve nanoindentation hardness measurements carried out using a NanoScan-4D tester and interpreted using the Oliver\u2013Pharr method. Carbonization causes a significant increase of elastic moduli from 0.86 \u00b1 0.07 GPa to 14.12 \u00b1 1.20 GPa for the composite with graphite and carbon black fillers. Nanoindentation measurements yield somewhat lower values, namely, 0.25 \u00b1 0.02 GPa and 9.83 \u00b1 1.10 GPa before and after carbonization, respectively. The analysis of fractography images suggests that crack initiation, growth and propagation may occur both at the notch stress concentrator or relatively far from the notch. Possible causes of such response are discussed, namely, (1) residual stresses introduced by processing; (2) shape and size of fillers; and (3) the emanation and accumulation of gases in composites during carbonization.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26030587","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]],"date-time":"2021-01-22T11:13:53Z","timestamp":1611314033000},"page":"587","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The Analysis of Micro-Scale Deformation and Fracture of Carbonized Elastomer-Based Composites by In Situ SEM"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1105-9206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eugene S.","family":"Statnik","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"HSM Lab, Center for Energy Science and Technology, Skoltech, 121205 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7415-5513","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Semen D.","family":"Ignatyev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Composite Materials, National University of Science and Technology \u201cMISIS\u201d, 119049 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0034-7587","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrey A.","family":"Stepashkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Composite Materials, National University of Science and Technology \u201cMISIS\u201d, 119049 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9048-8083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexey I.","family":"Salimon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HSM Lab, Center for Energy Science and Technology, Skoltech, 121205 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Center for Composite Materials, National University of Science and Technology \u201cMISIS\u201d, 119049 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4528-150X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dilyus","family":"Chukov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Composite Materials, National University of Science and Technology \u201cMISIS\u201d, 119049 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergey D.","family":"Kaloshkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Composite Materials, National University of Science and Technology \u201cMISIS\u201d, 119049 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3558-5198","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander M.","family":"Korsunsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HSM Lab, Center for Energy Science and Technology, Skoltech, 121205 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"MBLEM, Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1049\/mnl.2017.0235","article-title":"Carbonised composite materials based on elastomers filled with carbon nanofillers","volume":"13","author":"Stepashkin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Micro Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11115","article-title":"Electrocatalyst approaches and challenges for automotive fuel cells","volume":"486","author":"Debe","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aal3303","article-title":"Toward sustainable fuel cells","volume":"354","author":"Stephens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2018.06.013","article-title":"Progress on design and development of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell systems for vehicle applications: A review","volume":"179","author":"Wanga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Fuel Process. 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