{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T11:53:38Z","timestamp":1792324418330,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]],"date-time":"2021-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1614816000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Missouri Department of Agriculture, United States","award":["58-6020-6-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58-6020-6-001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cyanogenic glycosides (CNGs) are naturally occurring plant molecules (nitrogenous plant secondary metabolites) which consist of an aglycone and a sugar moiety. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is released from these compounds following enzymatic hydrolysis causing potential toxicity issues. The presence of CNGs in American elderberry (AE) fruit, Sambucus nigra (subsp. canadensis), is uncertain. A sensitive, reproducible and robust LC-MS\/MS method was developed and optimized for accurate identification and quantification of the intact glycoside. A complimentary picrate paper test method was modified to determine the total cyanogenic potential (TCP). TCP analysis was performed using a camera-phone and UV-Vis spectrophotometry. A method validation was conducted and the developed methods were successfully applied to the assessment of TCP and quantification of intact CNGs in different tissues of AE samples. Results showed no quantifiable trace of CNGs in commercial AE juice. Levels of CNGs found in various fruit tissues of AE cultivars studied ranged from between 0.12 and 6.38 \u00b5g\/g. In pressed juice samples, the concentration range measured was 0.29\u20132.36 \u00b5g\/mL and in seeds the levels were 0.12\u20132.38 \u00b5g\/g. TCP was highest in the stems and green berries. Concentration levels in all tissues were generally low and at a level that poses no threat to consumers of fresh and processed AE products.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26051384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,5]],"date-time":"2021-03-05T00:39:07Z","timestamp":1614904747000},"page":"1384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":54,"title":["Cyanogenic Glycoside Analysis in American Elderberry"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9331-7397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael K.","family":"Appenteng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ritter","family":"Krueger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitch C.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harrison","family":"Ingold","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Bell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Truman State University, Kirksville, MO 63501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew L.","family":"Thomas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Plant Sciences, Southwest Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6420-7375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C. Michael","family":"Greenlief","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Byers, P.L., Thomas, A.L., Cernusca, M.M., Godsey, L.D., and Gold, M.A. (2014). Growing and Marketing Elderberries, Univ. Missouri Center for Agroforestry. in Missouri. Agroforestry in Action Pub, AF1016."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.17660\/ActaHortic.2015.1061.26","article-title":"Horticultural Performance of Eight American Elderberry Genotypes at Three Missouri Locations","volume":"1061","author":"Thomas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.3029","article-title":"Anthocyanins and other polyphenolics in American elderberry (Sambucus canadensis) and European elderberry (S. nigra) cultivars","volume":"87","author":"Lee","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Moerman, D.E. (2002). Native American Ethnobotany, Timber Press."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e1th\u00e9, \u00c1. (2020). Medicinal Attributes of American Elderberry. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of North America, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-44930-8"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2020, December 22). Elderberry: Plant Profile. Available online: http:\/\/stitchandboots.com\/kitchen-garden\/fruit\/elderberry-plant-profile\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2017.11.025","article-title":"Bioactive properties of Sambucus nigra L. as a functional ingredient for food and pharmaceutical industry","volume":"40","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"919","article-title":"The effect of herbal remedies on the production of human inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines","volume":"4","author":"Barak","year":"2002","journal-title":"Isr. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2009.06.003","article-title":"Elderberry flavonoids bind to and prevent H1N1 infection in vitro","volume":"70","author":"Roschek","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2005.01.021","article-title":"Antiviral activity in vitro of Urtica dioica L., Parietaria diffusa M. et K. and Sambucus nigra L.","volume":"98","author":"Zaccaro","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"43","article-title":"Determination of Anthocyanins and Total Polyphenols in a Variety of Elderberry Juices by UPLC-MS\/MS and Other Methods","volume":"1061","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"240","article-title":"The Antimicrobial Activity of Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) Extract Against Gram Positive Bacteria, Gram Negative Bacteria and Yeast","volume":"8","author":"Mohammadsadeghi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. J. Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-16-134","article-title":"Antibacterial and Antiadhesive Activities of Extracts from Edible Plants against Soft Drink Spoilage by Asaia spp.","volume":"80","author":"Antolak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2004.06.011","article-title":"Influence of elderberry and blackcurrant concentrates on the growth of microorganisms","volume":"16","author":"Werlein","year":"2005","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.21273\/HORTSCI.48.3.338","article-title":"Conjoint Analysis of U.S. Consumers\u2019 Preference for Elderberry Jelly and Juice Products","volume":"48","author":"Mohebalian","year":"2013","journal-title":"HortScience"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"54","article-title":"US Sales of Herbal Supplements Increase by 8.6% in 2019","volume":"127","author":"Smith","year":"2020","journal-title":"HerbalGram"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.08.083","article-title":"Determination of amygdalin in apple seeds, fresh apples and processed apple juices","volume":"170","author":"Bolarinwa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2007.11.003","article-title":"Carotenoids and cyanogenic glucosides in saskatoon berries (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt)","volume":"21","author":"Mazza","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2013.11.002","article-title":"Amygdalin content of seeds, kernels and food products commercially-available in the UK","volume":"152","author":"Bolarinwa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-1978(99)00105-2","article-title":"Sambunigrin and cyanogenic variability in populations of Sambucus canadensis L. (Caprifoliaceae)","volume":"28","author":"Buhrmester","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Advances in cyanogenic glycosides biosynthesis and analyses in plants: A review","volume":"54","author":"Ganjewala","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Biol. Szeged."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(99)00128-2","article-title":"Plant cyanogenic glycosides","volume":"38","author":"Vetter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicon"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-015-1479-8","article-title":"Bioavailability of cyanide after consumption of a single meal of foods containing high levels of cyanogenic glycosides: A crossover study in humans","volume":"90","author":"Abraham","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7754","DOI":"10.1021\/jf402295u","article-title":"Quantification of amygdalin in nonbitter, semibitter, and bitter almonds (Prunus dulcis) by UHPLC-(ESI)QqQ MS\/MS","volume":"61","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.02.110","article-title":"Transition of phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides from apricot and cherry fruit kernels into liqueur","volume":"203","author":"Senica","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s11295-009-0244-7","article-title":"Molecular markers for kernel bitterness in almond","volume":"6","author":"Howad","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tree Genet. Genomes"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2003.10.016","article-title":"Cyanogenic glucosides and plant-insect interactions","volume":"65","author":"Zagrobelny","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2020, December 22). PDQ\u00ae Integrative, A., and Complementary Therapies Editorial Board PDQ Laetrile\/Amygdalin, Available online: https:\/\/www.cancer.gov\/about-cancer\/treatment\/cam\/hp\/laetrile-pdq."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarker, S.D., and Nahar, L. (2007). Chemistry for Pharmacy Students General, Organic, and Natural Produce Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118687529"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2011.06.005","article-title":"Total cyanide content of cassava food products in Australia","volume":"25","author":"Burns","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2146","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2006-1251","article-title":"Pediatric cyanide poisoning: Causes, manifestations, management, and unmet needs","volume":"118","author":"Geller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cyanide Poisoning in a Children Caused by Apricot Seeds","volume":"2","author":"Sahin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Health Med. Informat."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-010-2029-8","article-title":"An unusual cause of severe lactic acidosis: Cyanide poisoning after bitter almond ingestion","volume":"37","author":"Geeraerts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/096032719201100107","article-title":"Fatal cyanide poisoning from Cassava-based meal","volume":"11","author":"Akintonwa","year":"1992","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"MMWRCDC (2020, December 22). Poisoning from Elderberry Juice-California, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/mmwr\/preview\/mmwrhtml\/00000311.htm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2623","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.8085","article-title":"The higher the better? Differences in phenolics and cyanogenic glycosides in Sambucus nigra leaves, flowers and berries from different altitudes","volume":"97","author":"Senica","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Sci Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1556\/066.2016.45.3.16","article-title":"Composition of bioactive secondary metabolites and mutagenicity of Sambucus nigra L. Fruit at different stages of ripeness","volume":"45","author":"Lewandowska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Alimentaria"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2234","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.5752","article-title":"Drying and processing protocols affect the quantification of cyanogenic glucosides in forage sorghum","volume":"92","author":"Gleadow","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sci Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-4337.2008.00064.x","article-title":"Processing Techniques to Reduce Toxicity and Antinutrients of Cassava for Use as a Staple Food","volume":"8","author":"Montagnac","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2016.04.056","article-title":"Processed elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) products: A beneficial or harmful food alternative?","volume":"72","author":"Senica","year":"2016","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.3923\/ijps.2010.996.1001","article-title":"Effect of Processing Methods on Some Antinutritional Factors in Legume Seeds for Poultry Feeding","volume":"9","author":"Akande","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-02783-7_15","article-title":"Determination of cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides from plants","volume":"Volume 13","author":"Linskens","year":"1992","journal-title":"Plant Toxin Analysis"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Jeon, I., and Ikins, W.G. (1994). Analyzing Food for Nutrition Labeling and Hazardous Contaminants, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"117","article-title":"Cyanogenic compounds in plants and their toxic effects","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Keeler","year":"1983","journal-title":"Handbook of Natural Toxins"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.17660\/ActaHortic.2015.1061.14","article-title":"Occurrence of Polyphenols, Organic Acids, and Sugars among Diverse Elderberry Genotypes Grown in Three Missouri (USA) Locations","volume":"1061","author":"Thomas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"601","article-title":"Improved Spectrophotometric Assay of Cyanide with Picric Acid","volume":"48","author":"Douchioiou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rev. Roum. Chim."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0010(19990315)79:4<593::AID-JSFA222>3.0.CO;2-2","article-title":"Picrate paper kits for determination of total cyanogens in Cassava roots and all forms of cyanogens in Cassava products","volume":"79","author":"Bradbury","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Bergmeyer, H.U. (1974). Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, Elsevier Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytol.2014.11.021","article-title":"Metabolic differentiations of dwarf elder by NMR-based metabolomics","volume":"11","author":"Zahmanov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phytochem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fct.2008.09.005","article-title":"Analysis of cyanogens with resorcinol and picrate","volume":"46","author":"Drochioiu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2013.04.007","article-title":"Reports on the distribution of aromatic cyanogenic glycosides in Australian tropical rainforest tree species of the Lauraceae and Sapindaceae","volume":"92","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chroma.2014.03.077","article-title":"Bioanalytical chromatographic method validation according to current regulations, with a special focus on the non-well defined parameters limit of quantification, robustness and matrix effect","volume":"1353","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. A"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3019","DOI":"10.1021\/ac020361s","article-title":"Strategies for the Assessment of Matrix Effect in Quantitative Bioanalytical Methods Based on HPLC\u2212MS\/MS","volume":"75","author":"Matuszewski","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jen.2006.05.011","article-title":"Recognition and treatment of acute cyanide poisoning","volume":"32","author":"Borron","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Nurs."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/5\/1384\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T05:32:57Z","timestamp":1760160777000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/5\/1384"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules26051384"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules26051384","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,4]]}}}