{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T11:38:58Z","timestamp":1780400338124,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,27]],"date-time":"2021-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1619481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The present study examined the chemical composition and antimicrobial and gastrointestinal activity of the essential oils of Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton harvested in India (EC-I) and Guatemala (EC-G). Monoterpenes were present in higher concentration in EC-I (83.24%) than in EC-G (73.03%), whereas sesquiterpenes were present in a higher concentration in EC-G (18.35%) than in EC-I (9.27%). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.5 and 0.25 mg\/mL were demonstrated against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in EC-G and EC-I, respectively, whereas MICs of 1 and 0.5 mg\/mL were demonstrated against Escherichia coli in EC-G and EC-I, respectively. The treatment with control had the highest kill-time potential, whereas the treatment with oils had shorter kill-time. EC-I was observed to be more potent in the castor oil-induced diarrhea model than EC-G. At 100 and 200 mg\/kg, P.O., EC-I exhibited 40% and 80% protection, respectively, and EC-G exhibited 20% and 60% protection, respectively, in mice, whereas loperamide (10 mg\/kg, i.p., positive control) exhibited 100% protection. In the in vitro experiments, EC-I inhibited both carbachol (CCh, 1 \u00b5M) and high K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions at significantly lower concentrations than EC-G. Thus, EC-I significantly inhibited P. aeruginosa and E. coli and exhibited more potent antidiarrheal and antispasmodic effects than EC-G.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26092546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,27]],"date-time":"2021-04-27T21:18:20Z","timestamp":1619558300000},"page":"2546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Effects of Essential Oils of Elettaria cardamomum Grown in India and Guatemala on Gram-Negative Bacteria and Gastrointestinal Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Aftab","family":"Alam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6925-7697","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Najeeb Ur","family":"Rehman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8580-3002","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohd Nazam","family":"Ansari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7296-4074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amber Hanif","family":"Palla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Basic Medical Sciences (Pharmacology), Salim Habib University, Deh Dih, Korangi Creek, Karachi 74900, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s12298-016-0355-1","article-title":"Isolation and characterization of genomic microsatellite markers for small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) for utility in genetic diversity analysis","volume":"22","author":"Cyriac","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. 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