{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]],"date-time":"2026-07-12T04:59:25Z","timestamp":1783832365188,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Apple vinegar is a natural product widely used in food and traditional medicine as it contains many bioactive compounds. The apple variety and production methods are two factors that play a major role in determining the quality of vinegar. Therefore, this study aims to determine the quality of apple vinegar samples from different varieties (Red Delicious, Gala, Golden Delicious, and Starking Delicious) prepared by three methods using small apple pieces, apple juice, and crushed apple, through determining the physicochemical properties and antibacterial activity of these samples. The antibacterial activity was studied against five pathogenic bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli (ATB: 57), Escherichia coli (ATB: 97), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, using two methods, disk diffusion and microdilution, for determining the minimum inhibitory concentrations and the minimum bactericidal concentrations. The results of this study showed that the lowest pH value was 3.6 for Stark Delicious, obtained by liquid fermentation, and the highest acetic acid values were 4.7 and 4% for the vinegar of Red Delicious and Golden Delicious, prepared by solid fermentation, respectively. The results of the antibacterial activity showed considerable activity of apple vinegar on the tested strains. Generally, the Staphylococcus aureus strain appears less sensitive and Pseudomonas aeruginosa seems to be very sensitive against all samples, while the other strains have distinct sensitivities depending on the variety studied and the method used. A higher antibacterial activity was found in vinegar obtained by the apple pieces method and the Red Delicious variety, with a low MIC and MBC recorded, at 1.95 and 3.90 \u00b5L\/mL, respectively. This study has shown that the choice of both apple variety and production method is therefore an essential step in determining and aiming for the desired quality of apple vinegar.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26185437","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]],"date-time":"2021-09-07T10:24:25Z","timestamp":1631010265000},"page":"5437","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["The Impact of Apple Variety and the Production Methods on the Antibacterial Activity of Vinegar Samples"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5102-2379","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammed","family":"Kara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biotechnology, Conservation and Valorisation of Naturals Resources (LBCVNR), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, BP 1796 Atlas, Fez 30000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4013-3516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amine","family":"Assouguem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, P.O. Box 2202 Imouzzer Street, Fez 30000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4706-4311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omkulthom Mohamed Al","family":"kamaly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Safa\u00e2","family":"Benmessaoud","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biotechnology, Conservation and Valorisation of Naturals Resources (LBCVNR), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, BP 1796 Atlas, Fez 30000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8410-3212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamada","family":"Imtara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Arab American University Palestine, P.O. Box 240, Jenin 44862, Palestine"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4571-9089","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamza","family":"Mechchate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9938-0151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christophe","family":"Hano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Biologie des Ligneux et des Grandes Cultures, INRAE USC1328, University of Orleans, CEDEX 2, 45067 Orl\u00e9ans, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdou Rachid","family":"Zerhouni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biotechnology, Conservation and Valorisation of Naturals Resources (LBCVNR), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, BP 1796 Atlas, Fez 30000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jamila","family":"Bahhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Biotechnology, Conservation and Valorisation of Naturals Resources (LBCVNR), Faculty of Sciences Dhar El Mehraz, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, BP 1796 Atlas, Fez 30000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2244(02)00023-7","article-title":"Wine Vinegar: Technology, Authenticity and Quality Evaluation","volume":"13","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Office of the Commissioner, U.S. (2020, December 03). Food and Drug Administration, Available online: https:\/\/www.fda.gov\/home."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pianta, L., Vinciguerra, A., Bertazzoni, G., Morello, R., Mangiatordi, F., Lund, V.J., and Trimarchi, M. (2020). Acetic Acid Disinfection as a Potential Adjunctive Therapy for Non-Severe COVID-19. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol., 1\u20134.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00405-020-06067-8"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1621","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2016.10.128","article-title":"Varieties, Production, Composition and Health Benefits of Vinegars: A Review","volume":"221","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"61","article-title":"Vinegar: Medicinal Uses and Antiglycemic Effect","volume":"8","author":"Johnston","year":"2006","journal-title":"Medscape Gen. Med."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Antimicrobial Activity of Apple Cider Vinegar and Grape Vinegar, Which Are Used as a Traditional Surface Disinfectant for Fruits and Vegetables","volume":"27","author":"Baldas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Commun. Fac. Sci. Univ. Ank. Ser. C Biol. Geol. Eng. Geophys. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-18618-x","article-title":"Antimicrobial Activity of Apple Cider Vinegar against Escherichia Coli, Staphylococcus Aureus and Candida Albicans; Downregulating Cytokine and Microbial Protein Expression","volume":"8","author":"Yagnik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1086\/501694","article-title":"Antimicrobial Activity of Home Disinfectants and Natural Products Against Potential Human Pathogens","volume":"21","author":"Rutala","year":"2000","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Watson, R.R., Preedy, V.R., and Zibadi, S. (2018). Polyphenols: Mechanisms of Action in Human Health and Disease, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.2174\/138920101504140825121142","article-title":"Antibacterial Activity of Polyphenols","volume":"15","author":"Erika","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2015.03.003","article-title":"Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Mineral, Volatile, Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics of Traditional Home-Made Turkish Vinegars","volume":"63","author":"Ozturk","year":"2015","journal-title":"LWT Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1002\/jib.432","article-title":"Screening of Bioactive Components in Grape and Apple Vinegars: Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Potential","volume":"123","author":"Kelebek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Inst. Brew."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3345","DOI":"10.1021\/jf021180u","article-title":"Chemometric Studies of Vinegars from Different Raw Materials and Processes of Production","volume":"51","author":"Natera","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"19","article-title":"Use of Natural Organic Acid \u201cApple Vinegar\u201d as a Method of Biological Health Control","volume":"2","author":"Zarghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Food Drug Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6638","DOI":"10.1021\/jf104912h","article-title":"Effects of Apple Cider Vinegars Produced with Different Techniques on Blood Lipids in High-Cholesterol-Fed Rats","volume":"59","author":"Budak","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01192948","article-title":"Analysis of Polyphenolic Compounds of Different Vinegar Samples","volume":"199","author":"Barroso","year":"1994","journal-title":"Z. Lebensm. Unters. Forsch."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.16882\/hortis.882469","article-title":"Alteration of Antioxidant Activity and Total Phenolic Content during the Eight-Week Fermentation of Apple Cider Vinegar","volume":"38","author":"Budak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hortic. Stud."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1111\/nure.12125","article-title":"Effect and Mechanisms of Action of Vinegar on Glucose Metabolism, Lipid Profile, and Body Weight","volume":"72","author":"Petsiou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"2021","article-title":"Antioxidant Activity and Phenolic Content of Wine Vinegars Produced by Two Different Techniques","volume":"90","author":"Budak","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"S\u00e1iz-Abajo, M.J., Gonz\u00e1les-S\u00e1iz, J.M., and Pizarro, C. (2020, October 18). Classification of Wine and Alcohol Vinegar Samples Based on Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Feasibility Study on the Detection of Adulterated Vinegar Samples. Available online: https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/jf049098h."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2007.05.069","article-title":"A Study on Relationships among Chemical, Physical, and Qualitative Assessment in Traditional Balsamic Vinegar","volume":"106","author":"Masino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"ONSSA, R., and ONSSA, R. (2020, October 16). Du M. D\u00e9cret N\u00b02-10-385 Du 23 Joumada II 1432 (27 Mai 2011) Portant R\u00e9glementation de La Fabrication et Du Commerce Des Vinaigres, Available online: http:\/\/www.onssa.gov.ma\/images\/reglementation\/reglementation-sectorielle\/vegetaux-et-produits-dorigine-vegetaux\/Produits-dorigine-vegetale\/Produits_alimentaires\/DEC.2-10-385.FR.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Janchovska, E., Janchovska, M., Ristovski, B., and Bocevska, M. (2015, January 12\u201315). Antimicrobial and Antioxidative Activity of Commercial versus Traditional Apple Vinegar. Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Development (ICSD 2015), Belgrade, Serbia."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R757","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.12434","article-title":"Functional Properties of Vinegar","volume":"79","author":"Budak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Food Science"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12228","article-title":"Vinegar Functions on Health: Constituents, Sources, and Formation Mechanisms","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2018.01.001","article-title":"Use of Acetic and Citric Acids to Inhibit Escherichia Coli O157:H7, Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus Aureus in Tabbouleh Salad","volume":"73","author":"Olaimat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1605(92)90036-3","article-title":"Effects of Sodium Bicarbonate, Vinegar, Acetic and Citric Acids on Growth and Survival of Yersinia Enterocolitica","volume":"16","author":"Karapinar","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2013.00162","article-title":"Green Tea as an Effective Antimicrobial for Urinary Tract Infections Caused by Escherichia Coli","volume":"4","author":"Reygaert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fm.2011.08.019","article-title":"AFM Study of the Differential Inhibitory Effects of the Green Tea Polyphenol (\u2212)-Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate (EGCG) against Gram-Positive and Gram-Negative Bacteria","volume":"29","author":"Cui","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"e7413504","article-title":"Antimicrobial Potential of Caffeic Acid against Staphylococcus Aureus Clinical Strains","volume":"2018","author":"Wojtyczka","year":"2018","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2016.08.004","article-title":"Antimicrobial and Enhancement of the Antibiotic Activity by Phenolic Compounds: Gallic Acid, Caffeic Acid and Pyrogallol","volume":"99","author":"Lima","year":"2016","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2010.01.066","article-title":"Synthesis, Structure and Structure\u2013Activity Relationship Analysis of Caffeic Acid Amides as Potential Antimicrobials","volume":"45","author":"Fu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2011.02.014","article-title":"Recent Advances in Understanding the Antibacterial Properties of Flavonoids","volume":"38","author":"Cushnie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-2736(93)90323-R","article-title":"Bactericidal Catechins Damage the Lipid Bilayer","volume":"1147","author":"Ikigai","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox2030181","article-title":"Phenolic Compounds in Apple (Malus x Domestica Borkh.): Compounds Characterization and Stability during Postharvest and after Processing","volume":"2","author":"Francini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antioxidants"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-8130(01)00155-6","article-title":"Interactions between Apple Cell Walls and Native Apple Polyphenols: Quantification and Some Consequences","volume":"29","author":"Renard","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2004.04.001","article-title":"Non-Covalent Interaction between Procyanidins and Apple Cell Wall Material: Part I. Effect of Some Environmental Parameters","volume":"1672","author":"Guyot","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Gen. Subj."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, S.S. (2010). Standard Solutions and Titratable Acidity. Food Anal. Lab. Man., 95\u2013102.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-1463-7_12"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Albornoz, C.E.H. (2012). Microbiological Analysis and Control of the Fruit Vinegar Production Process. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Rovira i Virgili]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, S.S. (2010). Determination of Moisture Content. Food Anal. Lab. Man., 17\u201327.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-1463-7_3"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imtara, H., Elamine, Y., and Lyoussi, B. (2020, August 27). Honey Antibacterial Effect Boosting Using Origanum Vulgare L. Essential Oil. Available online: https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/ecam\/2018\/7842583\/.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/7842583"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.12.4.550-553.1980","article-title":"Single-Disk Diffusion Testing (Kirby-Bauer) of Susceptibility of Proteus Mirabilis to Chloramphenicol: Significance of the Intermediate Category","volume":"12","author":"Furtado","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3341","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.9.3341-3348.2000","article-title":"Use of the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards Guidelines for Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Testing in New York State Laboratories","volume":"38","author":"Kiehlbauch","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"4804","article-title":"Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity of Different Extracts from Leaves and Roots of Jovibarba Heuffelii (Schott.) A. Lve and D. Lve","volume":"6","author":"Lakuscaron","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Med. Plants Res."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Barry, A.L. (1999). Methods for Determining Bactericidal Activity of Antimicrobial Agents: Approved Guideline, National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpha.2015.11.005","article-title":"Methods for in Vitro Evaluating Antimicrobial Activity: A Review","volume":"6","author":"Balouiri","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Anal."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/18\/5437\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:58:02Z","timestamp":1760165882000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/18\/5437"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules26185437"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules26185437","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,7]]}}}