{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T04:13:19Z","timestamp":1792123999280,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":338,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]],"date-time":"2021-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637798400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Broad antibacterial spectrum, high oral bioavailability and excellent tissue penetration combined with safety and few, yet rare, unwanted effects, have made the quinolones class of antimicrobials one of the most used in inpatients and outpatients. Initially discovered during the search for improved chloroquine-derivative molecules with increased anti-malarial activity, today the quinolones, intended as antimicrobials, comprehend four generations that progressively have been extending antimicrobial spectrum and clinical use. The quinolone class of antimicrobials exerts its antimicrobial actions through inhibiting DNA gyrase and Topoisomerase IV that in turn inhibits synthesis of DNA and RNA. Good distribution through different tissues and organs to treat Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have made quinolones a good choice to treat disease in both humans and animals. The extensive use of quinolones, in both human health and in the veterinary field, has induced a rise of resistance and menace with leaving the quinolones family ineffective to treat infections. This review revises the evolution of quinolones structures, biological activity, and the clinical importance of this evolving family. Next, updated information regarding the mechanism of antimicrobial activity is revised. The veterinary use of quinolones in animal productions is also considered for its environmental role in spreading resistance. Finally, considerations for the use of quinolones in human and veterinary medicine are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237153","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,30]],"date-time":"2021-11-30T22:01:11Z","timestamp":1638309671000},"page":"7153","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":206,"title":["Biological Effects of Quinolones: A Family of Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Agents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ana R.","family":"Millanao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Farmacia, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aracely Y.","family":"Mora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Bioqu\u00edmica, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380544, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicol\u00e1s A.","family":"Villagra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Tecnolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370071, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio A.","family":"Bucarey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8820808, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7788-3185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro A.","family":"Hidalgo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago 8370071, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1071\/CH9490249","article-title":"Alkaloids of the Australian Rutaceae: Melicope fareana. I. Isolation of the Constituent Alkaloids","volume":"2","author":"Price","year":"1949","journal-title":"Aust. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1071\/CH9490630","article-title":"Alkaloids of the Australian Rutaceae: Acronychia baueri. III. The Structure of Acronycine","volume":"2","author":"Drummond","year":"1949","journal-title":"Aust. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1071\/CH9490282","article-title":"Alkaloids of the Australian Rutaceae: Melicope fareana. V. The Structure of the Alkaloids","volume":"2","author":"Crow","year":"1949","journal-title":"Aust. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4874","DOI":"10.1021\/jm501881c","article-title":"Origins of the Quinolone Class of Antibacterials: An Expanded \u201cDiscovery Story\u201d","volume":"58","author":"Bisacchi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1021\/cr030101q","article-title":"Bacterial Topoisomerase Inhibitors: Quinolone and Pyridone Antibacterial Agents","volume":"105","author":"Mitscher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2014.04.007","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Resistance: Mechanisms, Impact on Bacteria, and Role in Evolutionary Success","volume":"22","author":"Redgrave","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg212","article-title":"Development of the Quinolones","volume":"51","author":"Andersson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"54","article-title":"Safety of Fluoroquinolones: An Update","volume":"13","author":"Mandell","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagaoka, S. (2019). Drug Discovery in Japan: Investigating the Sources of Innovation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-13-8906-1"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"546","article-title":"PK-PD Modelling of Norfloxacin after Oral Administration in Rabbits","volume":"3","author":"Pavithra","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-199958002-00012","article-title":"Quinolone Activity Against Anaerobes","volume":"58","author":"Appelbaum","year":"1999","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.26.5.785","article-title":"In Vitro Susceptibility of Anaerobic Bacteria to Ciprofloxacin (Bay o 9867)","volume":"26","author":"Prabhala","year":"1984","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.36.5.1158","article-title":"Comparative Activity of Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Sparfloxacin, Temafloxacin, CI-960, CI-990, and WIN 57273 against Anaerobic Bacteria","volume":"36","author":"Goldstein","year":"1992","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Naeem, A., Badshah, S.L., Muska, M., Ahmad, N., and Khan, K. (2016). The Current Case of Quinolones: Synthetic Approaches and Antibacterial Activity. Molecules, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules21040268"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"2741","article-title":"New Classification and Update on the Quinolone Antibiotics","volume":"61","author":"King","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.38.10.2504","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of DU-6859a against Anaerobic Bacteria","volume":"38","author":"Wexler","year":"1994","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01428-15","article-title":"Clinafloxacin for Treatment of Burkholderia Cenocepacia Infection in a Cystic Fibrosis Patient","volume":"60","author":"Balwan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01197-09","article-title":"Comparative In Vitro Activities of Nemonoxacin (TG-873870), a Novel Nonfluorinated Quinolone, and Other Quinolones against Clinical Isolates","volume":"54","author":"Lauderdale","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.3410\/B1-40","article-title":"New Antibiotics for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria","volume":"1","author":"Stubbings","year":"2009","journal-title":"F1000 Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/48.1.29","article-title":"Activity of Non-Fluorinated Quinolones (NFQs) against Quinolone-Resistant Escherichia coli and Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"48","author":"Roychoudhury","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4915","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00078-09","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of Nemonoxacin, a Novel Nonfluorinated Quinolone, against 2440 Clinical Isolates","volume":"53","author":"Adam","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"765","article-title":"Review of Nemonoxacin with Special Focus on Clinical Development","volume":"8","author":"Qin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2012.0244","article-title":"Antibacterial Activity and Mode of Action of Ferulic and Gallic Acids Against Pathogenic Bacteria","volume":"19","author":"Borges","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2018.11.033","article-title":"Ferulic Acid Potentiates the Antibacterial Activity of Quinolone-Based Antibiotics against Acinetobacter baumannii","volume":"126","author":"Ibitoye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1701776","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1701776","article-title":"Potentiating Antibiotics in Drug-Resistant Clinical Isolates via Stimuli-Activated Superoxide Generation","volume":"3","author":"Courtney","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01966998","article-title":"Synergy and Antagonism of Combinations with Quinolones","volume":"10","author":"Neu","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tintino, S.R., de Souza, V.C.A., da Silva, J.M.A., Oliveira-Tintino, C.D.d.M., Pereira, P.S., Leal-Balbino, T.C., Pereira-Neves, A., Siqueira-Junior, J.P., da Costa, J.G.M., and Rodrigues, F.F.G. (2020). Effect of Vitamin K3 Inhibiting the Function of NorA Efflux Pump and Its Gene Expression on Staphylococcus aureus. Membranes, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/membranes10060130"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114962","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2019.06.025","article-title":"Identification of a Potent Small-Molecule Inhibitor of Bacterial DNA Repair That Potentiates Quinolone Antibiotic Activity in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"27","author":"Lim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioorgan. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22963","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.22963","article-title":"Structural Basis for the Inhibition of RecBCD by Gam and Its Synergistic Antibacterial Effect with Quinolones","volume":"5","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.32.489","article-title":"Synergistic Effect of Kaempferol Glycosides Purified from Laurus Nobilis and Fluoroquinolones on Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"32","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2017.09.014","article-title":"Natural Isoflavone Biochanin A as a Template for the Design of New and Potent 3-Phenylquinolone Efflux Inhibitors against Mycobacterium avium","volume":"140","author":"Cannalire","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2192","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkw114","article-title":"L-Serine Potentiates Fluoroquinolone Activity against Escherichia Coli by Enhancing Endogenous Reactive Oxygen Species Production","volume":"71","author":"Duan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S242304","article-title":"Palmatine Is a Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance (PMQR) Inhibitor That Restores the Activity of Ciprofloxacin Against QnrS and AAC(6\u02b9)-Ib-Cr-Producing Escherichia coli","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bradfute, S.B., Ye, C., Clarke, E.C., Kumar, S., Timmins, G.S., and Deretic, V. (2020). Ambroxol and Ciprofloxacin Show Activity Against SARS-CoV2 in Vero E6 Cells at Clinically-Relevant Concentrations. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.08.11.245100"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmii.2015.10.010","article-title":"Activity of Levofloxacin in Combination with Colistin against Acinetobacter baumannii: In Vitro and in a Galleria mellonella Model","volume":"50","author":"Wei","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201508330","article-title":"Adjuvants Based on Hybrid Antibiotics Overcome Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enhance Fluoroquinolone Efficacy","volume":"55","author":"Gorityala","year":"2015","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8441","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.6b00867","article-title":"Hybrid Antibiotic Overcomes Resistance in P. aeruginosa by Enhancing Outer Membrane Penetration and Reducing Efflux","volume":"59","author":"Gorityala","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00077-17","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00077-17","article-title":"Antibiotic Hybrids: The Next Generation of Agents and Adjuvants against Gram-Negative Pathogens?","volume":"31","author":"Domalaon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/S0223-5234(02)01361-2","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of Quinolone Antibiotics in Various Environments","volume":"37","author":"Park","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(82)90032-1","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of the Fluoroquinolone Antimicrobials. II. Acid Ionization Constants and Their Relationship to Structure","volume":"83","author":"Ross","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbamem.2012.05.027","article-title":"Mechanism for Translocation of Fluoroquinolones across Lipid Membranes","volume":"1818","author":"Cramariuc","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA Biomembr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb.15.39","article-title":"Delafloxacin, a Non-Zwitterionic Fluoroquinolone in Phase III of Clinical Development: Evaluation of Its Pharmacology, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Clinical Efficacy","volume":"10","year":"2015","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofy220","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofy220","article-title":"Safety of Delafloxacin: Focus on Adverse Events of Special Interest","volume":"5","author":"Lodise","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rusu, A., Lungu, I.-A., Moldovan, O.-L., Tanase, C., and Hancu, G. (2021). Structural Characterization of the Millennial Antibacterial (Fluoro)Quinolones\u2014Shaping the Fifth Generation. Pharmaceutics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics13081289"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s10867-014-9354-z","article-title":"Experimental and Theoretical Studies on the Molecular Properties of Ciprofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Pefloxacin, Sparfloxacin, and Gatifloxacin in Determining Bioavailability","volume":"40","author":"Biernacka","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"827","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of Lomefloxacin, Levofloxacin, and Moxifloxacin Relevant to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System","volume":"61","author":"Biernacka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Chim. Slov."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11153","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules180911153","article-title":"Metal Complexes of Quinolone Antibiotics and Their Applications: An Update","volume":"18","author":"Uivarosi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(93)90170-K","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of the Fluoroquinolone Antimicrobials V. Effect of Fluoroquinolone Structure and PH on the Complexation of Various Fluoroquinolones with Magnesium and Calcium Ions","volume":"93","author":"Ross","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pitman, S.K., Hoang, U.T.P., Wi, C.H., Alsheikh, M., Hiner, D.A., and Percival, K.M. (2019). Revisiting Oral Fluoroquinolone and Multivalent Cation Drug-Drug Interactions: Are They Still Relevant?. Antibiotics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics8030108"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200140001-00008","article-title":"Effects of Iron Supplements on the Oral Bioavailability of Moxifloxacin, a Novel 8-Methoxyfluoroquinolone, in Humans","volume":"40","author":"Stass","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12194","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules190812194","article-title":"The Effect of Some Fluoroquinolone Family Members on Biospeciation of Copper(II), Nickel(II) and Zinc(II) Ions in Human Plasma","volume":"19","author":"Djurdjevic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10344","DOI":"10.1039\/D0SC03486J","article-title":"Dynamic Interaction of Fluoroquinolones with Magnesium Ions Monitored Using Bacterial Outer Membrane Nanopores","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(90)90540-2","article-title":"Relevance of Ionic Effects on Norfloxacin Uptake by Escherichia coli","volume":"40","author":"Valisena","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/28.5.639","article-title":"A comparison of methods used for measuring the accumulation of quinolones by Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"28","author":"Mortimer","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2506","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.36.11.2506","article-title":"Transport of Pefloxacin across the Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membrane in Quinolone-Susceptible Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"36","author":"Furet","year":"1992","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-5173(92)90336-Z","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of the Fluoroquinolone Antimicrobials. III. 1-Octanol\/Water Partition Coefficients and Their Relationships to Structure","volume":"88","author":"Ross","year":"1992","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferreira, M., Bessa, L.J., Sousa, C.F., Eaton, P., Bongiorno, D., Stefani, S., Campanile, F., and Gameiro, P. (2020). Fluoroquinolone Metalloantibiotics: A Promising Approach against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17093127"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinorgbio.2014.05.007","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone\u2013Metal Complexes: A Route to Counteract Bacterial Resistance?","volume":"138","author":"Feio","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Inorg. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Tian, M., Yuan, L., Deng, H., Wang, L., Li, A., Hou, Z., Li, Y., and Zhang, Y. (2020, September 25). Analysis of E. rutaecarpa Alkaloids Constituents In Vitro and In Vivo by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS Combined with Diagnostic Fragment. Available online: https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/jamc\/2016\/4218967\/.","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/4218967"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2010.00247.x","article-title":"Quinolones: From Antibiotics to Autoinducers","volume":"35","author":"Heeb","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.7164\/antibiotics.51.145","article-title":"New Quinolone Compounds from Pseudonocardia Sp. with Selective and Potent Anti-Helicobacter pylori Activity: Taxonomy of Producing Strain, Fermentation, Isolation, Structural Elucidation and Biological Activities","volume":"51","author":"Dekker","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Antibiot."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2680","DOI":"10.3762\/bjoc.14.245","article-title":"Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of 1,2-Disubstituted 4-Quinolone Analogues of Pseudonocardia Sp. Natural Products","volume":"14","author":"Geddis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Beilstein J. Org. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jucker, E. (1977). Development of antibacterial agents of the nalidixic acid type. Progress in Drug Research\/Fortschritte der Arzneimittelforschung\/Progr\u00e8s des Rechersches Pharmaceutiques, Birkh\u00e4user.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-7098-6"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.2174\/187152107779314179","article-title":"Activities of Quinolones Against Obligately Anaerobic Bacteria","volume":"6","author":"Schaumann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anti Infect. Agents Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bryskier, A. (2005). Antimicrobial Agents: Antibacterials and Antifungals, ASM Press.","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555815929"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/33.4.685","article-title":"Structure-Activity and Structure-Side-Effect Relationships for the Quinolone Antibacterials","volume":"33","author":"Domagala","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"161","article-title":"The history of the development and changes of quinolone antibacterial agents","volume":"38","author":"Takahashi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Yakushigaku Zasshi"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkg208","article-title":"The Quinolones: Decades of Development and Use","volume":"51","author":"Emmerson","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.10.1.20","article-title":"Bioevaluation of the Antibacterial Flumequine for Urinary Tract Use","volume":"10","author":"Rohlfing","year":"1976","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.23.4.559","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of Bay 09867, a New Quinoline Derivative, Compared with Those of Other Antimicrobial Agents","volume":"23","author":"Wise","year":"1983","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.25.3.319","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin, a Quinolone Carboxylic Acid Compound Active against Aerobic and Anaerobic Bacteria","volume":"25","author":"Chin","year":"1984","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1816","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.33.10.1816","article-title":"Inhibitory Effects of Quinolones on DNA Gyrase of Escherichia coli and Topoisomerase II of Fetal Calf Thymus","volume":"33","author":"Hoshino","year":"1989","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1080\/14756360701425014","article-title":"The Role of Fluorine in Medicinal Chemistry","volume":"22","author":"Shah","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Enzym. Inhib. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.22.4.548","article-title":"In Vitro and in Vivo Activity of DL-8280, a New Oxazine Derivative","volume":"22","author":"Sato","year":"1982","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.41.1.101","article-title":"In Vitro Activity of BAY 12-8039, a New Fluoroquinolone","volume":"41","author":"Woodcock","year":"1997","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2703","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.45.10.2703-2709.2001","article-title":"Enhancement of Fluoroquinolone Activity by C-8 Halogen and Methoxy Moieties: Action against a Gyrase Resistance Mutant of Mycobacterium smegmatis and a Gyrase-Topoisomerase IV Double Mutant of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"45","author":"Lu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00007-19","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00007-19","article-title":"Transferable Mechanisms of Quinolone Resistance from 1998 Onward","volume":"32","author":"Ruiz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klomp, F., Wenzel, C., Drozdzik, M., and Oswald, S. (2020). Drug\u2013Drug Interactions Involving Intestinal and Hepatic CYP1A Enzymes. Pharmaceutics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics12121201"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e25428","DOI":"10.1002\/qua.25428","article-title":"Computational Study of Fluoroquinolone Binding to Mg(H2O)N2+ and Its Applicability to Future Drug Design","volume":"117","author":"Bridle","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Quantum Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2015.07.077","article-title":"Novel Antibacterial Active Quinolone\u2013Fluoroquinolone Conjugates and 2D-QSAR Studies","volume":"25","author":"Panda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioorgan. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, Y., Zhao, Y., and Li, Y. (2020). Environmentally Friendly Fluoroquinolone Derivatives with Lower Plasma Protein Binding Rate Designed Using 3D-QSAR, Molecular Docking and Molecular Dynamics Simulation. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17186626"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiolchem.2019.02.008","article-title":"Combined QSAR\/QSPR and Molecular Docking Study on Fluoroquinolones to Reduce Biological Enrichment","volume":"79","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"(2021, October 28). Molecular Design of Lower Photodegradation Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics and Their Photolysis Paths Inference. Available online: http:\/\/www.cjcu.jlu.edu.cn\/EN\/10.7503\/cjcu20180475."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-6634-9_5","article-title":"Computer-Aided Drug Design Methods","volume":"Volume 1520","author":"Sass","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antibiotics"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-111-4-336","article-title":"Norfloxacin: A New Drug in the Treatment of Falciparum Malaria","volume":"111","author":"Sarma","year":"1989","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"176","article-title":"Curative Efficacy of Norfloxacin in Falciparum Malaria","volume":"97","author":"Tripathi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Indian J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-014-2296-3","article-title":"Antiviral, Antifungal, and Antiparasitic Activities of Fluoroquinolones Optimized for Treatment of Bacterial Infections: A Puzzling Paradox or a Logical Consequence of Their Mode of Action?","volume":"34","author":"Dalhoff","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1846","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.8.1846","article-title":"4-Aminoquinoline Analogs of Chloroquine with Shortened Side Chains Retain Activity against Chloroquine-Resistant Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"40","author":"Ridley","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cll.2009.10.001","article-title":"Malaria","volume":"30","author":"Garcia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7076","DOI":"10.1021\/jm1007903","article-title":"Endochin Optimization: Structure-Activity and Structure-Property Relationship Studies of 3-Substituted 2-Methyl-4(1H)-Quinolones with Antimalarial Activity","volume":"53","author":"Cross","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1002\/jhet.774","article-title":"Quinolone Analogs 11: Synthesis of Novel 4-Quinolone-3-Carbohydrazide Derivatives with Antimalarial Activity","volume":"49","author":"Kurasawa","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Heterocycl. Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5027404","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5027404","article-title":"Norfloxacin and N-Donor Mixed-Ligand Copper(II) Complexes: Synthesis, Albumin Interaction, and Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi Activity","volume":"2016","author":"Martins","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioinorg. Chem. Appl."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4442","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01757-15","article-title":"Quinolone Amides as Antitrypanosomal Lead Compounds with In Vivo Activity","volume":"60","author":"Hiltensperger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2012.07.064","article-title":"Design, Synthesis and Evaluation of Clinafloxacin Triazole Hybrids as a New Type of Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents","volume":"22","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bioorgan. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2011.05.089","article-title":"Ligational Behaviour of Lomefloxacin Drug towards Cr(III), Mn(II), Fe(III), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II), Th(IV) and UO2(VI) Ions: Synthesis, Structural Characterization and Biological Activity Studies","volume":"82","author":"Mohamed","year":"2011","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molstruc.2010.01.036","article-title":"Synthesis, Characterization, Antibacterial, Antifungal and Immunomodulating Activities of Gatifloxacin\u2013Metal Complexes","volume":"969","author":"Sultana","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mol. Struct."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2659","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-014-1450-9","article-title":"Metal Complex of the First-Generation Quinolone Antimicrobial Drug Nalidixic Acid: Structure and Its Biological Evaluation","volume":"175","author":"Debnath","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl Biochem Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khamkhenshorngphanuch, T., Kulkraisri, K., Janjamratsaeng, A., Plabutong, N., Thammahong, A., Manadee, K., Na Pombejra, S., and Khotavivattana, T. (2020). Synthesis and Antimicrobial Activity of Novel 4-Hydroxy-2-Quinolone Analogs. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25133059"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.2174\/092986707780362998","article-title":"Helicases as Antiviral and Anticancer Drug Targets","volume":"14","author":"Xi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-3542(88)90004-6","article-title":"Suppression of BK Virus Replication and Cytopathic Effect by Inhibitors of Prokaryotic DNA Gyrase","volume":"9","author":"Portolani","year":"1988","journal-title":"Antivir. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3062.2008.00334.x","article-title":"Impact of Prophylactic Administration of Ciprofloxacin on BK Polyoma Virus Replication","volume":"10","author":"Koukoulaki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Transpl. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/135965350701200104","article-title":"Inhibition of Simian Virus 40 Large T Antigen Helicase Activity by Fluoroquinolones","volume":"12","author":"Ali","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.3851\/IMP1937","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones Inhibit HCV by Targeting Its Helicase","volume":"17","author":"Khan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Antivir. Ther."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2020.05.024","article-title":"Should We Try SARS-CoV-2 Helicase Inhibitors for COVID-19 Therapy?","volume":"51","author":"Habtemariam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Med Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1007\/s43440-020-00169-0","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin and Moxifloxacin Could Interact with SARS-CoV-2 Protease: Preliminary in Silico Analysis","volume":"72","author":"Marciniec","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pharm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.2174\/1874467210801010068","article-title":"Immunomodulatory Properties of Antibiotics","volume":"1","author":"Tauber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Mol. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(03)00658-3","article-title":"Immunomodulatory Effects of Quinolones","volume":"3","author":"Dalhoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1007\/s10156-009-0680-1","article-title":"In Vivo and in Vitro Effects of Fluoroquinolones on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced pro-Inflammatory Cytokine Production","volume":"15","author":"Ogino","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm398","article-title":"Besifloxacin, a Novel Fluoroquinolone Antimicrobial Agent, Exhibits Potent Inhibition of pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in Human THP-1 Monocytes","volume":"61","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1538-9","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin and Levofloxacin Attenuate Microglia Inflammatory Response via TLR4\/NF-KB Pathway","volume":"16","author":"Zusso","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1469-0691.2002.00374.x","article-title":"Effect of Moxifloxacin on Secretion of Cytokines by Human Monocytes Stimulated with Lipopolysaccharide","volume":"8","author":"Araujo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dki441","article-title":"Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Moxifloxacin on IL-8, IL-1beta and TNF-Alpha Secretion and NFkappaB and MAP-Kinase Activation in Human Monocytes Stimulated with Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"57","author":"Shalit","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjc.6603355","article-title":"Moxifloxacin Enhances Antiproliferative and Apoptotic Effects of Etoposide but Inhibits Its Proinflammatory Effects in THP-1 and Jurkat Cells","volume":"95","author":"Fabian","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6009","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612822666160715115025","article-title":"Quinolones in the Search for New Anticancer Agents","volume":"22","author":"Batalha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"1727","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin Triggers the Apoptosis of Human Triple-Negative Breast Cancer MDA-MB-231 Cells via the P53\/Bax\/Bcl-2 Signaling Pathway","volume":"52","author":"Beberok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharep.2017.07.007","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin-Mediated Induction of S-Phase Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis in COLO829 Melanoma Cells","volume":"70","author":"Beberok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"6211","article-title":"Enoxacin with UVA Irradiation Induces Apoptosis in the AsPC1 Human Pancreatic Cancer Cell Line Through ROS Generation","volume":"37","author":"Nishi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2018.08.002","article-title":"GSH Depletion, Mitochondrial Membrane Breakdown, Caspase-3\/7 Activation and DNA Fragmentation in U87MG Glioblastoma Cells: New Insight into the Mechanism of Cytotoxicity Induced by Fluoroquinolones","volume":"835","author":"Beberok","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmcl.2011.01.061","article-title":"Synthesis, Characterization and Anti-Tumor Activity of Moxifloxacin-Copper Complexes against Breast Cancer Cell Lines","volume":"21","author":"Patitungkho","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioorgan. Med. Chem. Lett."},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"6407","article-title":"Photodynamically-Induced Apoptosis Due to Ultraviolet A in the Presence of Lomefloxacin in Human Promyelocytic Leukemia Cells","volume":"37","author":"Nakai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anticancer Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.12.119","article-title":"Repositioning of Fluoroquinolones from Antibiotic to Anti-Cancer Agents: An Underestimated Truth","volume":"111","author":"Yadav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2018.04.055","article-title":"Fluorine Walk: The Impact of Fluorine in Quinolone Amides on Their Activity against African Sleeping Sickness","volume":"152","author":"Berninger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3887","DOI":"10.1021\/jm9013136","article-title":"Second Generation Analogues of the Cancer Drug Clinical Candidate Tipifarnib for Anti-Chagas Disease Drug Discovery","volume":"53","author":"Kraus","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2018.11.032","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone-Isatin Hybrids and Their Biological Activities","volume":"162","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1506","DOI":"10.1021\/jm0600139","article-title":"Novel HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitors Derived from Quinolone Antibiotics","volume":"49","author":"Sato","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2506","DOI":"10.1021\/om101180c","article-title":"Physicochemical Studies and Anticancer Potency of Ruthenium H6-p-Cymene Complexes Containing Antibacterial Quinolones","volume":"30","author":"Kljun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Organometallics"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2007.00810.x","article-title":"Lack of Inhibitory Effects of Several Fluoroquinolones on Cytochrome P-450 3A Activities at Clinical Dosage in Dogs","volume":"30","author":"Regmi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1002\/ardp.201500115","article-title":"Synthesis and Anticonvulsant Activity Evaluation of 4-Phenyl-[1,2,4]Triazolo[4,3-a]Quinazolin-5(4H)-One and Its Derivatives","volume":"348","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1871","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.7b01417","article-title":"Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Orally Bioavailable Quinoline\u2013Indole Derivatives as Innovative Multitarget-Directed Ligands: Promotion of Cell Proliferation in the Adult Murine Hippocampus for the Treatment of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"61","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1007\/s10593-007-0136-4","article-title":"4-Hydroxy-2-Quinolones 121. Synthesis and Biological Properties of 1-Hydroxy-3-Oxo-5,6-Dihydro-3h-Pyrrolo[3,2,1-Ij]Quino-Line-2-Carboxylic Acid Alkylamides","volume":"43","author":"Ukrainets","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chem. Heterocycl. Compd."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2005.01131.x","article-title":"Quinolones in 2005: An Update","volume":"11","author":"Michot","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-199753040-00010","article-title":"Sparfloxacin. A Review of Its Antibacterial Activity, Pharmacokinetic Properties, Clinical Efficacy and Tolerability in Lower Respiratory Tract Infections","volume":"53","author":"Goa","year":"1997","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_133","first-page":"455","article-title":"Quinolones: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"65","author":"Oliphant","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_134","first-page":"261","article-title":"Ofloxacin vs. Ciprofloxacin: A Comparison","volume":"56","author":"Nicolau","year":"1992","journal-title":"Connect. Med."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1002\/phar.1761","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone-Associated Tendinopathy: Does Levofloxacin Pose the Greatest Risk?","volume":"36","author":"Bidell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacotherapy"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1159\/000057838","article-title":"History of Quinolones and Their Side Effects","volume":"47","author":"Rubinstein","year":"2001","journal-title":"Chemotherapy"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-199754030-00006","article-title":"Trovafloxacin","volume":"54","author":"Haria","year":"1997","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-7125(05)70309-6","article-title":"Antibiotic Side Effects","volume":"85","author":"Cunha","year":"2001","journal-title":"Med. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2014.11.016","article-title":"SATURN WP1 and WP3 Study Groups. Collateral Damage from Oral Ciprofloxacin vs. Nitrofurantoin in Outpatients with Urinary Tract Infections: A Culture-Free Analysis of Gut Microbiota","volume":"21","author":"Stewardson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2017.01.025","article-title":"A Seven-Day Course of Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole May Be as Effective as a Seven-Day Course of Ciprofloxacin for the Treatment of Pyelonephritis","volume":"130","author":"Fox","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e304","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000000304","article-title":"Comparative Effectiveness of Different Oral Antibiotics Regimens for Treatment of Urinary Tract Infection in Outpatients: An Analysis of National Representative Claims Database","volume":"93","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1086\/313677","article-title":"New Uses for New and Old Quinolones and the Challenge of Resistance","volume":"30","author":"Hooper","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10409","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-020-10974-5","article-title":"Campylobacter Sp.: Pathogenicity Factors and Prevention Methods\u2014New Molecular Targets for Innovative Antivirulence Drugs?","volume":"104","author":"Kreling","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1177\/1756283X10384171","article-title":"Should Quinolones Come First in Helicobacter Pylori Therapy?","volume":"4","author":"Berning","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.2000.4266","article-title":"The Complex of DNA Gyrase and Quinolone Drugs on DNA Forms a Barrier to the T7 DNA Polymerase Replication Complex","volume":"304","author":"Wentzell","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.1994.1586","article-title":"The Complex of DNA Gyrase and Quinolone Drugs with DNA Forms a Barrier to Transcription by RNA Polymerase","volume":"242","author":"Willmott","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Drolet, M. (2018). DNA Topoisomerases as Targets for Antibacterial Agents. DNA Topoisomerases: Methods and Protocols, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-7459-7"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9611","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx649","article-title":"Activities of Gyrase and Topoisomerase IV on Positively Supercoiled DNA","volume":"45","author":"Ashley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4767","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.74.11.4767","article-title":"Mechanism of Action of Nalidixic Acid: Purification of Escherichia coli NalA Gene Product and Its Relationship to DNA Gyrase and a Novel Nicking-Closing Enzyme","volume":"74","author":"Sugino","year":"1977","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkp032","article-title":"Phylogenomics of DNA Topoisomerases: Their Origin and Putative Roles in the Emergence of Modern Organisms","volume":"37","author":"Forterre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.13911","article-title":"Negative Supercoiling of DNA by Gyrase Is Inhibited in Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium during Adaptation to Acid Stress","volume":"107","author":"Colgan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1021\/bi5000564","article-title":"Mechanism of Quinolone Action and Resistance","volume":"53","author":"Aldred","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.140.2.424-435.1979","article-title":"Escherichia coli Mutants Thermosensitive for Deoxyribonucleic Acid Gyrase Subunit A: Effects on Deoxyribonucleic Acid Replication, Transcription, and Bacteriophage Growth","volume":"140","author":"Kreuzer","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11801","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.25.11801","article-title":"Topoisomerase IV Is a Target of Quinolones in Escherichia coli","volume":"92","author":"Khodursky","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4772","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.74.11.4772","article-title":"Nalidixic Acid Resistance: A Second Genetic Character Involved in DNA Gyrase Activity","volume":"74","author":"Gellert","year":"1977","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S54","DOI":"10.1086\/514923","article-title":"Bacterial Topoisomerases, Anti-Topoisomerases, and Anti-Topoisomerase Resistance","volume":"27","author":"Hooper","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2252","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.10.2252","article-title":"ParC Subunit of DNA Topoisomerase IV of Streptococcus pneumoniae Is a Primary Target of Fluoroquinolones and Cooperates with DNA Gyrase A Subunit in Forming Resistance Phenotype","volume":"40","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2321","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.40.10.2321","article-title":"Involvement of Topoisomerase IV and DNA Gyrase as Ciprofloxacin Targets in Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"40","author":"Pan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2160","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.44.8.2160-2165.2000","article-title":"Selective Targeting of Topoisomerase IV and DNA Gyrase in Staphylococcus aureus: Different Patterns of Quinolone- Induced Inhibition of DNA Synthesis","volume":"44","author":"Fournier","year":"2000","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3370","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.46.11.3370-3380.2002","article-title":"Dual Targeting of DNA Gyrase and Topoisomerase IV: Target Interactions of Garenoxacin (BMS-284756, T-3811ME), a New Desfluoroquinolone","volume":"46","author":"Ince","year":"2002","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3260","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.10.3260-3269.2003","article-title":"In Vitro Antibacterial Potency and Spectrum of ABT-492, a New Fluoroquinolone","volume":"47","author":"Nilius","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-017-0790-5","article-title":"Delafloxacin: First Global Approval","volume":"77","author":"Markham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkn528","article-title":"Target Specificity of the New Fluoroquinolone Besifloxacin in Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli","volume":"63","author":"Cambau","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1039\/C9MD00120D","article-title":"Quinolone Antibiotics","volume":"10","author":"Pham","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med. Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rotschafer, J.C., Andes, D.R., and Rodvold, K.A. (2016). Pharmacodynamics of Fluoroquinolones. Antibiotic Pharmacodynamics, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3323-5"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2018.05.019","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones Metal Complexation and Its Environmental Impacts","volume":"376","author":"Cuprys","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coord. Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dougherty, T.J., and Pucci, M.J. (2012). Fluoroquinolone Resistance: Mechanisms, Restrictive Dosing, and Anti-Mutant Screening Strategies for New Compounds. Antibiotic Discovery and Development, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-1400-1"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12300","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.529164","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone-Gyrase-DNA Complexes","volume":"289","author":"Mustaev","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1892","article-title":"Structural Basis of Quinolone Inhibition of Type IIA Topoisomerases and Target-Mediated Resistance","volume":"17","author":"Wohlkonig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3304","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkw161","article-title":"Suppression of Gyrase-Mediated Resistance by C7 Aryl Fluoroquinolones","volume":"44","author":"Malik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9401","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.272.14.9401","article-title":"Mechanism of Quinolone Action: A drug-induced structural perturbation of the DNA precedes strand cleavage by Topoisomerase IV","volume":"272","author":"Marians","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22615","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.273.35.22615","article-title":"The DNA Gyrase-Quinolone Complex. ATP Hydrolysis and the Mechanism of DNA Cleavage","volume":"273","author":"Kampranis","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_173","unstructured":"Critchlow, S., and Maxwell, A. (1996). Biochemistry, American Chemical Society."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.2174\/156802609789630947","article-title":"Quinolones: Action and Resistance Updated","volume":"9","author":"Drlica","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34780","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M001608200","article-title":"DNA Gyrase-Mediated Wrapping of the DNA Strand Is Required for the Replication Fork Arrest by the DNA Gyrase-Quinolone-DNA Ternary Complex","volume":"275","author":"Hiasa","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35927","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.50.35927","article-title":"Quinolones Inhibit DNA Religation Mediated by Staphylococcus aureus Topoisomerase IV: Changes in drug mechanism across evolutionary boundaries","volume":"274","author":"Anderson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1038\/nsmb.1604","article-title":"Structural Insight into the Quinolone-DNA Cleavage Complex of Type IIA Topoisomerases","volume":"16","author":"Laponogov","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1006\/jmbi.1996.0274","article-title":"DNA Gyrase and Topoisomerase IV on the Bacterial Chromosome: Quinolone-Induced DNA Cleavage","volume":"258","author":"Chen","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01617-06","article-title":"Quinolone-Mediated Bacterial Death","volume":"52","author":"Drlica","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00739-06","article-title":"Effect of Anaerobic Growth on Quinolone Lethality with Escherichia coli","volume":"51","author":"Malik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10064","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1901730116","article-title":"Post-Stress Bacterial Cell Death Mediated by Reactive Oxygen Species","volume":"116","author":"Hong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.06.049","article-title":"A Common Mechanism of Cellular Death Induced by Bactericidal Antibiotics","volume":"130","author":"Kohanski","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00443-1","article-title":"Proximate and Ultimate Causes of the Bactericidal Action of Antibiotics","volume":"19","author":"Baquero","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01622-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01622-17","article-title":"Suppression of Reactive Oxygen Species Accumulation Accounts for Paradoxical Bacterial Survival at High Quinolone Concentration","volume":"62","author":"Luan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatnagar, K., and Wong, A. (2019). The Mutational Landscape of Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0224650"},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01229","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.01229","article-title":"Fitness Benefits in Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Salmonella Typhi in the Absence of Antimicrobial Pressure","volume":"2","author":"Baker","year":"2013","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msz214","article-title":"The Genetic Background Modulates the Evolution of Fluoroquinolone-Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis","volume":"37","author":"Castro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-019-0294-2","article-title":"Porins and Small-Molecule Translocation across the Outer Membrane of Gram-Negative Bacteria","volume":"18","author":"Vergalli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10009","DOI":"10.1039\/C6RA26466B","article-title":"The Binding of Free and Copper-Complexed Fluoroquinolones to OmpF Porins: An Experimental and Molecular Docking Study","volume":"7","author":"Sousa","year":"2017","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s00232-014-9749-6","article-title":"Ciprofloxacin Metalloantibiotic: An Effective Antibiotic with an Influx Route Strongly Dependent on Lipid Interaction?","volume":"248","author":"Ferreira","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Membr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.34.9.1715","article-title":"Clinical Isolate of a Porinless Salmonella Typhi Resistant to High Levels of Chloramphenicol","volume":"34","author":"Toro","year":"1990","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7113","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00600-11","article-title":"Mechanisms of Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Food-Producing Animals","volume":"77","author":"Karczmarczyk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2012.11.012","article-title":"Contribution of Different Mechanisms to the Resistance to Fluoroquinolones in Clinical Isolates of Salmonella enterica","volume":"17","author":"Rushdy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkv299","article-title":"Attenuation of in Vitro Host\u2013Pathogen Interactions in Quinolone-Resistant Salmonella Typhi Mutants","volume":"71","author":"Mathur","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-015-0983-7","article-title":"RpoE Is a Putative Antibiotic Resistance Regulator of Salmonella enteric Serovar Typhi","volume":"72","author":"Xie","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00729","article-title":"Molecular and Physiological Characterization of Fluoroquinolone-Highly Resistant Salmonella Enteritidis Strains","volume":"10","author":"Vidovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0048-6","article-title":"Multidrug Efflux Pumps: Structure, Function and Regulation","volume":"16","author":"Du","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1556\/030.66.2019.040","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Resistance Conferred by GyrA, ParC Mutations, and AbaQ Efflux Pump among Acinetobacter baumannii Clinical Isolates Causing Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","volume":"67","author":"Attia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Immunol. Hung."},{"key":"ref_199","first-page":"39","article-title":"Mechanisms of Action and of Resistance to Quinolones","volume":"1","year":"2019","journal-title":"Antibiot. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00944-09","article-title":"Constitutive SoxS Expression in a Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Strain with a Truncated SoxR Protein and Identification of a New Member of the MarA-SoxS-Rob Regulon, MdtG","volume":"54","author":"Martin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.42.8.2089","article-title":"Overexpression of the MarA or SoxS Regulatory Gene in Clinical Topoisomerase Mutants of Escherichia coli","volume":"42","author":"Oethinger","year":"1998","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01405-7","article-title":"The Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Operon of Enteric Bacteria Controls DNA Repair and Outer Membrane Integrity","volume":"8","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2019.05.122","article-title":"Cysteine Auxotrophy Drives Reduced Susceptibility to Quinolones and Paraquat by Inducing the Expression of Efflux-Pump Systems and Detoxifying Enzymes in S. Typhimurium","volume":"515","author":"Villagra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00428","article-title":"Inactivation of Glutamine Synthetase-Coding Gene GlnA Increases Susceptibility to Quinolones Through Increasing Outer Membrane Protein F in Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhi","volume":"11","author":"Millanao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"918","DOI":"10.1128\/JB.00911-10","article-title":"The Sensor Kinase CbrA Is a Global Regulator That Modulates Metabolism, Virulence, and Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas Aeruginosa","volume":"193","author":"Yeung","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6976.2011.00282.x","article-title":"Metabolic Regulation of Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"35","author":"Rojo","year":"2011","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2019.06.009","article-title":"Bacterial Metabolism and Antibiotic Efficacy","volume":"30","author":"Stokes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkr573","article-title":"The Carbon Source Influences the Efflux Pump-Mediated Antimicrobial Resistance in Clinically Important Gram-Negative Bacteria","volume":"67","author":"Villagra","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hidalgo, A.A., Arias, \u00c1.J., Fuentes, J.A., Garc\u00eda, P., Mora, G.C., and Villagra, N.A. (2021, January 28). Xylose Improves Antibiotic Activity of Chloramphenicol and Tetracycline against K. pneumoniae and A. baumannii in a Murine Model of Skin Infection. Available online: https:\/\/www.hindawi.com\/journals\/cjidmm\/2018\/3467219\/.","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/3467219"},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Chang, M., Zhang, X., Cai, P., Dai, Y., Song, T., Wu, Z., Xu, H., and Qiao, M. (2020). Functional Identification and Evolutionary Analysis of Two Novel Plasmids Mediating Quinolone Resistance in Proteus vulgaris. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071074"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5900","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pez337","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Commercial Broiler Chickens and Selection of Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Mutants","volume":"98","author":"Nishikawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, P., Yang, Y., Li, F., Li, X., Liu, H., Fazilani, S.A., Guo, W., Xu, G., and Zhang, X. (2020). The Prevalence and Mechanism of Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolated from Swine Farms in China. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02483-4"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1716478","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Clinical Isolates of Klebsiella pneumonia e","volume":"12","author":"Geetha","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Lab. Physicians"},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S257877","article-title":"Profiles of GyrA Mutations and Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Genes in Shigella Isolates with Different Levels of Fluoroquinolone Susceptibility","volume":"13","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2773","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkaa288","article-title":"Emergence of Ciprofloxacin Heteroresistance in Foodborne Salmonella enterica Serovar Agona","volume":"75","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiac.2020.06.002","article-title":"Interaction of the Plasmid-Encoded Quinolone Resistance Protein QnrB19 with Salmonella Typhimurium DNA Gyrase","volume":"26","author":"Pachanon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105987","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105987","article-title":"Plasmids and Genes Contributing to High-Level Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli","volume":"56","author":"Sater","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1007\/s11033-019-05220-9","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance (PMQR) among Enterobacteriales in Latin America: A Systematic Review","volume":"47","author":"Vieira","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drup.2016.09.001","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance: Two Decades On","volume":"29","author":"Machuca","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drug Resist. Updates"},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01882-17","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01882-17","article-title":"Molecular Characterization of QnrVC Genes and Their Novel Alleles in Vibrio Spp. Isolated from Food Products in China","volume":"62","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkq1296","article-title":"Structural Insights into Quinolone Antibiotic Resistance Mediated by Pentapeptide Repeat Proteins: Conserved Surface Loops Direct the Activity of a Qnr Protein from a Gram-Negative Bacterium","volume":"39","author":"Xiong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5413","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00771-15","article-title":"Interactions between QnrB, QnrB Mutants, and DNA Gyrase","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2503","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.02503","article-title":"Transduction as a Potential Dissemination Mechanism of a Clonal QnrB19-Carrying Plasmid Isolated from Salmonella of Multiple Serotypes and Isolation Sources","volume":"10","author":"Pezoa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1111\/mmi.14235","article-title":"The Plasmid-Borne Quinolone Resistance Protein QnrB, a Novel DnaA-Binding Protein, Increases the Bacterial Mutation Rate by Triggering DNA Replication Stress","volume":"111","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02167-15","article-title":"Mutations That Enhance the Ciprofloxacin Resistance of Escherichia coli with QnrA1","volume":"60","author":"Corcoran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-014-0409-2","article-title":"Plasmid-Related Quinolone Resistance Determinants in Epidemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Uropathogenic Escherichia coli, and Marine Bacteria from an Aquaculture Area in Chile","volume":"68","author":"Aedo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dky562","article-title":"Prevalence of the CrpP Gene Conferring Decreased Ciprofloxacin Susceptibility in Enterobacterial Clinical Isolates from Mexican Hospitals","volume":"74","author":"Cervantes","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3354","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00339-07","article-title":"New Plasmid-Mediated Fluoroquinolone Efflux Pump, QepA, Found in an Escherichia coli Clinical Isolate","volume":"51","author":"Yamane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3801","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00638-08","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Pump QepA2 in an Escherichia coli Isolate from France","volume":"52","author":"Cattoir","year":"2008","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.47.2.798-799.2003","article-title":"Conjugative Plasmid Conferring Resistance to Olaquindox","volume":"47","author":"Hansen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1089\/mdr.2019.0165","article-title":"Site-Directed Mutagenesis Reveals Crucial Residues in Escherichia coli Resistance-Nodulation-Division Efflux Pump OqxB","volume":"26","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microb. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkm167","article-title":"Substrate Specificity of the OqxAB Multidrug Resistance Pump in Escherichia coli and Selected Enteric Bacteria","volume":"60","author":"Hansen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40610","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40610","article-title":"Bacterial Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance Genes in Aquatic Environments in China","volume":"7","author":"Yan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00971-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00971-17","article-title":"Quinolone Resistance Reversion by Targeting the SOS Response","volume":"8","author":"Recacha","year":"2017","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1534\/g3.119.400199","article-title":"An SRNA Screen for Reversal of Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli","volume":"10","author":"Bhatnagar","year":"2020","journal-title":"G3 Genes Genomes Genet."},{"key":"ref_236","first-page":"39","article-title":"Chapter 4\u2014Current trends of antimicrobials used in food animals and aquaculture","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Hashmi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in the Environment"},{"key":"ref_237","unstructured":"Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP), European Medicines Agency (EMA) (2006). Reflection Paper on the Use of Fluoroquinolones in Food-Producing Animals in the European Union: Development of Resistance and Impact on Human and Animal Health, European Medicines Agency."},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1590\/1516-635x17011-10","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones in Industrial Poultry Production, Bacterial Resistance and Food Residues: A Review","volume":"17","author":"Pereira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Braz. J. Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_239","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6772","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.5b00729","article-title":"Comprehensive Evaluation of Antibiotics Emission and Fate in the River Basins of China: Source Analysis, Multimedia Modeling, and Linkage to Bacterial Resistance","volume":"49","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_240","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.18782\/2320-7051.6296","article-title":"A Review on Drugs Used in Shrimp Aquaculture","volume":"6","author":"Rakesh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pure App. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_241","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2014.11.010","article-title":"Characterization of Novel Mutations Involved in Quinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolated from Imported Shrimp","volume":"45","author":"Nawaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_242","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.4067\/S0034-98872011000100015","article-title":"Uso Inadecuado y Excesivo de Antibi\u00f3ticos: Salud P\u00fablica y Salmonicultura En Chile","volume":"139","author":"Millanao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. M\u00e9d. Chile"},{"key":"ref_243","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.235.5.528","article-title":"Update on Drugs Prohibited from Extralabel Use in Food Animals","volume":"235","author":"Davis","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_244","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00653-18","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01318-17","article-title":"Identification of Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance in Salmonella Isolated from Swine Ceca and Retail Pork Chops in the United States","volume":"61","author":"Tyson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_245","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pey539","article-title":"The Application of Antibiotics in Broiler Production and the Resulting Antibiotic Resistance in Escherichia coli: A Global Overview|Elsevier Enhanced Reader","volume":"98","author":"Roth","year":"2019","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_246","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6281","DOI":"10.3382\/ps\/pez576","article-title":"In Vitro Evaluation of Various Antimicrobials against Field Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Mycoplasma synoviae Isolates in Egypt","volume":"98","author":"Awad","year":"2019","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_247","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2013-03627","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Resistance and Molecular Characterization of GyrA and ParC Quinolone Resistance-Determining Regions in Escherichia coli Isolated from Poultry","volume":"93","author":"Vanni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_248","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.2013-03522","article-title":"Molecular Epidemiological Survey on Quinolone Resistance Genotype and Phenotype of Escherichia coli in Septicemic Broilers in Hebei, China","volume":"93","author":"Xie","year":"2014","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_249","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1086\/512369","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone-Resistant Campylobacter Species and the Withdrawal of Fluoroquinolones from Use in Poultry: A Public Health Success Story","volume":"44","author":"Nelson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_250","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5302","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00688-16","article-title":"Monitoring Antimicrobial Resistance in the Food Supply Chain and Its Implications for FDA Policy Initiatives","volume":"60","author":"Zawack","year":"2016","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_251","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2019.734820","article-title":"Veterinary Drug Use in United States Net Pen Salmon Aquaculture: Implications for Drug Use Policy","volume":"518","author":"Love","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_252","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1917","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.12134","article-title":"Antimicrobial Use in Aquaculture Re-Examined: Its Relevance to Antimicrobial Resistance and to Animal and Human Health","volume":"15","author":"Cabello","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_253","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Werner, N., McEwen, S., and Kreienbrock, L. (2018). Monitoring Antimicrobial Drug Usage in Animals: Methods and Applications. Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Livestock and Companion Animals, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1128\/9781555819804.ch27"},{"key":"ref_254","unstructured":"WHO (2015). Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_255","unstructured":"OIE World Organisation for Animal Health (2018). OIE Annual Report on Antimicrobial Agents Intended for Use in Animals, OIE. Third Report."},{"key":"ref_256","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2020). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2019 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_257","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2019). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2018 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_258","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2015). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2013 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_259","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2015). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2014 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_260","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2016). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2015 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_261","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2017). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2016 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_262","unstructured":"FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2018). Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed in 2017 for Use in Food-Producing Animals, FDA."},{"key":"ref_263","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2019). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 31 European Countries in 2017, EMA. (EMA\/294674\/2019)."},{"key":"ref_264","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2018). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 30 European Countries in 2016, EMA. (EMA\/275982\/2018)."},{"key":"ref_265","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2017). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 30 European Countries in 2015, EMA. (EMA\/184855\/2017)."},{"key":"ref_266","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2016). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 29 European Countries in 2014, EMA. (EMA\/61769\/2016)."},{"key":"ref_267","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2015). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 26 EU\/EEA Countries in 2013, EMA. (EMA\/387934\/2015)."},{"key":"ref_268","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2014). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 26 EU\/EEA Countries in 2012, EMA. (EMA\/333921\/2014)."},{"key":"ref_269","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2013). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 25 EU\/EEA Countries in 2011, EMA. (EMA\/236501\/2013)."},{"key":"ref_270","unstructured":"European Surveillance of Veterinary Antimicrobial Consumption, EMA European Medicines Agency (2020). Sales of Veterinary Antimicrobial Agents in 31 European Countries in 2018, EMA. (EMA\/24309\/2020)."},{"key":"ref_271","unstructured":"NORM\/NORM-VET (2020). Usage of Antimicrobial Agents and Occurrence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Norway 2019."},{"key":"ref_272","unstructured":"NORM\/NORM-VET (2019). Usage of Antimicrobial Agents and Occurrence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Norway 2018."},{"key":"ref_273","unstructured":"ANSES (2019). Rapport de l\u2019Anses: Suivi Des Ventes de M\u00e9dicaments V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaires Contenant Des Antibiotiques En France En 2018."},{"key":"ref_274","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cuong, N.V., Padungtod, P., Thwaites, G., and Carrique-Mas, J.J. (2018). Antimicrobial Usage in Animal Production: A Review of the Literature with a Focus on Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Antibiotics, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics7030075"},{"key":"ref_275","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2015.10.019","article-title":"Quantification of Antimicrobial Usage in Dairy Cows and Preweaned Calves in Argentina","volume":"122","author":"Pol","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_276","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5649","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1503141112","article-title":"Global Trends in Antimicrobial Use in Food Animals","volume":"112","author":"Brower","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_277","unstructured":"Millanao, A.R. (2002). Estudio Cualitativo y Cuantitativo de las Quinolonas y Fluoroquinolonas Importadas y Autorizadas Para Uso y Disposici\u00f3n en Medicina y en Veterinaria en Chile, en el Per\u00edodo 1998\u20132001. Consideraciones Sobre su Impacto Para la Salud P\u00fablica y el Medio Ambiente. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Escuela de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Universidad Austral de Chile]."},{"key":"ref_278","unstructured":"Barrientos, M. (2006). Estudio Cualitativo y Cuantitativo de las Quinolonas y Fluoroquinolonas Importadas y Autorizadas Para Uso y Disposici\u00f3n en Medicina y en Veterinaria en Chile, en el Per\u00edodo 2002\u20132005. Consideraciones Sobre su Impacto Para la Salud P\u00fablica y el Medio Ambiente. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Escuela de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Universidad Austral de Chile]."},{"key":"ref_279","unstructured":"SERNAPESCA (2016). Informe Sobre Uso de Antimicrobianos en la Salmonicultura Nacional A\u00f1o 2015."},{"key":"ref_280","unstructured":"SERNAPESCA (2017). Informe Sobre Uso de Antimicrobianos en la Salmonicultura Nacional A\u00f1o 2016."},{"key":"ref_281","unstructured":"SERNAPESCA (2017). Informe Sobre Uso de Antimicrobianos en la Salmonicultura Nacional A\u00f1o 2017."},{"key":"ref_282","unstructured":"SERNAPESCA (2019). Informe Sobre Uso de Antimicrobianos en la Salmonicultura Nacional A\u00f1o 2018."},{"key":"ref_283","unstructured":"SAG (2021, March 13). Declaraci\u00f3n de Venta de Antimicrobianos, Available online: https:\/\/www.sag.gob.cl\/ambitos-de-accion\/declaracion-de-venta-de-antimicrobianos."},{"key":"ref_284","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.4067\/s0716-10182018000300299","article-title":"Resistencia a los antimicrobianos en Chile y el paradigma de Una Salud: Manejando los riesgos para la salud p\u00fablica humana y animal resultante del uso de antimicrobianos en la acuicultura del salm\u00f3n y en medicina","volume":"35","author":"Millanao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Infectol."},{"key":"ref_285","unstructured":"Barrientos, C. (2016). Estudio Cualitativo y Cuantitativo de las Quinolonas y Fluoroquinolonas Importadas y Autorizadas Para Uso y Disposici\u00f3n en Medicina y en Veterinaria en Chile, en el Per\u00edodo 2013\u20132015. Consideraciones Sobre su Impacto Para la Salud P\u00fablica y el Medio Ambiente. [Bachelor\u2019s Thesis, Escuela de Qu\u00edmica y Farmacia, Universidad Austral de Chile]."},{"key":"ref_286","unstructured":"Ritchie, H., and Roser, M. (2020, September 21). Meat and Dairy Production. Available online: https:\/\/ourworldindata.org\/meat-production."},{"key":"ref_287","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-016-1320-7","article-title":"Antibiotic Strategies in the Era of Multidrug Resistance","volume":"20","author":"Karam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_288","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2434","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2709.204395","article-title":"Reduction in Antimicrobial Use and Resistance to Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Escherichia coli in Broiler Chickens, Canada, 2013\u20132019","volume":"27","author":"Huber","year":"2021","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_289","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01933","article-title":"Editorial: Horizontal Gene Transfer Mediated Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_290","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1177\/003335491212700103","article-title":"A Review of Antibiotic Use in Food Animals: Perspective, Policy, and Potential","volume":"127","author":"Landers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_291","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkt443","article-title":"Correlation between Veterinary Antimicrobial Use and Antimicrobial Resistance in Food-Producing Animals: A Report on Seven Countries","volume":"69","author":"Chantziaras","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_292","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.00362","article-title":"Consumer Exposure to Antimicrobial Resistant Bacteria from Food at Swiss Retail Level","volume":"9","author":"Jans","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_293","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13756-017-0171-6","article-title":"Genetic Markers Associated with Resistance to Beta-Lactam and Quinolone Antimicrobials in Non-Typhoidal Salmonella Isolates from Humans and Animals in Central Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Eguale","year":"2017","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Resist. Infect. Control."},{"key":"ref_294","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-010-2649-5","article-title":"Effect of Antibiotics in the Environment on Microbial Populations","volume":"87","author":"Ding","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_295","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.microc.2017.02.006","article-title":"Ecological Effects of Antibiotics on Natural Ecosystems: A Review","volume":"136","author":"Grenni","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microchem. J."},{"key":"ref_296","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00338","article-title":"Antibiotics in the Soil Environment\u2014Degradation and Their Impact on Microbial Activity and Diversity","volume":"10","author":"Mrozik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_297","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Li, X., Yang, Q., Sun, L., Yang, X., Zhou, M., Deng, R., and Bi, L. (2017). Plant Growth, Antibiotic Uptake, and Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance in an Endophytic System of Pakchoi under Antibiotic Exposure. Int. J. Env. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14111336"},{"key":"ref_298","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2013.03.018","article-title":"Sorption of Fluoroquinolones and Sulfonamides in 13 Brazilian Soils","volume":"92","author":"Leal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_299","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"704","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2017.10.092","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones (FQs) in the Environment: A Review on Their Abundance, Sorption and Toxicity in Soil","volume":"191","author":"Riaz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_300","first-page":"250","article-title":"Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics: An Emerging Class of Environmental Micropollutants","volume":"500\u2013501","author":"Dewulf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_301","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejps.2012.04.022","article-title":"Predicting the Exposure and Antibacterial Activity of Fluoroquinolones Based on Physicochemical Properties","volume":"47","author":"Avdeef","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_302","unstructured":"K\u00fcmmerer, K. (2008). Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks, Springer. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_303","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2304","DOI":"10.1897\/08-059.1","article-title":"Molecular Modeling of Metal Complexation by a Fluoroquinolone Antibiotic","volume":"27","author":"Aristilde","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ Toxicol Chem"},{"key":"ref_304","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jes.2018.11.024","article-title":"Soil Contamination with Antibiotics in a Typical Peri-Urban Area in Eastern China: Seasonal Variation, Risk Assessment, and Microbial Responses","volume":"79","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_305","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15777","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72324-9","article-title":"Occurrence, Distribution, and Health Risk Assessment of Quinolone Antibiotics in Water, Sediment, and Fish Species of Qingshitan Reservoir, South China","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_306","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.2174\/1389200215666140605130935","article-title":"A 30-Years Review on Pharmacokinetics of Antibiotics: Is the Right Time for Pharmacogenetics?","volume":"15","author":"Baietto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Metab."},{"key":"ref_307","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2008.12.007","article-title":"Metabolism and Excretion Kinetics of 14C-Labeled and Non-Labeled Difloxacin in Pigs after Oral Administration, and Antimicrobial Activity of Manure Containing Difloxacin and Its Metabolites","volume":"109","author":"Sukul","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_308","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1111\/jvp.12130","article-title":"Excretion Pattern of Enrofloxacin after Oral Treatment of Chicken Broilers","volume":"37","author":"Slana","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_309","first-page":"e00188","article-title":"Evaluation of the Influence of Fluoroquinolone Chemical Structure on Stability: Forced Degradation and in Silico Studies","volume":"54","author":"Pereira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Braz. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_310","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2012.12.072","article-title":"Photolytic Degradation of Norfloxacin, Enrofloxacin and Ciprofloxacin in Various Aqueous Media","volume":"91","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_311","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6933","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-019-10017-8","article-title":"Degradation and Transformation of Fluoroquinolones by Microorganisms with Special Emphasis on Ciprofloxacin","volume":"103","author":"Rusch","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl Microbiol. Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref_312","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2017.04.026","article-title":"Removal of Ciprofloxacin from Hospital Wastewater Using Electrocoagulation Technique by Aluminum Electrode: Optimization and Modelling through Response Surface Methodology","volume":"109","author":"Ahmadzadeh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Process. Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_313","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.05.005","article-title":"Enantioselective Fractionation of Fluoroquinolones in the Aqueous Environment Using Chiral Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry","volume":"206","author":"Kannan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_314","first-page":"1447","article-title":"Fluoroquinolones in Hospital Wastewater: Analytical Method, Occurrence, Treatment with Ozone and Residual Antimicrobial Activity Evaluation","volume":"30","author":"Porto","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Braz. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_315","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2015.12.127","article-title":"Removal of Fluoroquinolone Contaminants from Environmental Waters on Sepiolite and Its Photo-Induced Regeneration","volume":"150","author":"Sturini","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_316","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2016.02.113","article-title":"Fungal Treatment for the Removal of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Veterinary Hospital Wastewater","volume":"152","author":"Lucas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_317","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1007\/s00374-014-0914-y","article-title":"Influence of Ciprofloxacin on Microbial Community Structure and Function in Soils","volume":"50","author":"Cui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Fertil. Soils"},{"key":"ref_318","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1038\/s41429-020-0296-3","article-title":"Exploring Metabolic Adaptation of Streptococcus pneumoniae to Antibiotics","volume":"73","author":"Leonard","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Antibiot."},{"key":"ref_319","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1590\/S1984-82502011000100004","article-title":"Environmental Contamination by Fluoroquinolones","volume":"50","author":"Frade","year":"2014","journal-title":"Braz. J. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_320","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2647","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.3552","article-title":"Implications of Fluoroquinolone Contamination for the Aquatic Environment\u2014A Review","volume":"35","author":"Janecko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_321","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giebu\u0142towicz, J., Na\u0142\u0119cz-Jawecki, G., Harnisz, M., Kucharski, D., Korzeniewska, E., and P\u0142aza, G. (2020). Environmental Risk and Risk of Resistance Selection Due to Antimicrobials\u2019 Occurrence in Two Polish Wastewater Treatment Plants and Receiving Surface Water. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25061470"},{"key":"ref_322","unstructured":"Rutgersson, C., Fick, J., Marathe, N., Kristiansson, E., Janzon, A., Angelin, M., Johansson, A., Shouche, Y., Flach, C.-F., and Larsson, D.G.J. (2020, October 07). Fluoroquinolones and Qnr Genes in Sediment, Water, Soil, and Human Fecal Flora in an Environment Polluted by Manufacturing Discharges. Available online: https:\/\/pubs.acs.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1021\/es501452a."},{"key":"ref_323","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2016.10.031","article-title":"Characterization of CTX-M Enzymes, Quinolone Resistance Determinants, and Antimicrobial Residues from Hospital Sewage, Wastewater Treatment Plant, and River Water","volume":"136","author":"Conte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_324","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.01176","article-title":"Enhanced Bacterial Fitness Under Residual Fluoroquinolone Concentrations Is Associated with Increased Gene Expression in Wastewater-Derived Qnr Plasmid-Harboring Strains","volume":"9","author":"Kaplan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_325","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1111\/1758-2229.12327","article-title":"Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Marine Bacteria and Human Uropathogenic Escherichia coli from a Region of Intensive Aquaculture","volume":"7","author":"Tomova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_326","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-017-1016-9","article-title":"Plasmid-Mediated Quinolone Resistance (PMQR) Genes and Class 1 Integrons in Quinolone-Resistant Marine Bacteria and Clinical Isolates of Escherichia coli from an Aquacultural Area","volume":"75","author":"Tomova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_327","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/1462-2920.14891","article-title":"Freshwater Salmon Aquaculture in Chile and Transferable Antimicrobial Resistance\u2014Cabello\u20142020\u2014Environmental Microbiology\u2014Wiley Online Library","volume":"22","author":"Cabello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_328","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2017.03.012","article-title":"Membrane Vesicles and Horizontal Gene Transfer in Prokaryotes","volume":"38","author":"Domingues","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_329","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ048","article-title":"Colistin-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii: Beyond Carbapenem Resistance","volume":"60","author":"Qureshi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_330","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2479","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02479","article-title":"Acinetobacter Spp. Infections in Malaysia: A Review of Antimicrobial Resistance Trends, Mechanisms and Epidemiology","volume":"8","author":"Rani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_331","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2018.12.013","article-title":"Interspecies DNA Acquisition by a Naturally Competent Acinetobacter baumannii Strain","volume":"53","author":"Traglia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_332","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.12.012","article-title":"Biotransformation of Fluoroquinolone Antibiotics by Ligninolytic Fungi\u2014Metabolites, Enzymes and Residual Antibacterial Activity","volume":"136","author":"Moeder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_333","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine, WHO. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/foodsafety\/publications\/antimicrobials-sixth\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_334","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1321","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.12222","article-title":"Considerations on the Aquaculture Development and on the Use of Veterinary Drugs: Special Issue for Fluoroquinolones\u2014A Review","volume":"78","author":"Quesada","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_335","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, C.-F., Chen, C.-H., Wu, C.-Y., Lin, C.-S., Su, Y.-C., Wu, C.-F., Tsai, H.-P., Fan, P.-S., Yeh, C.-H., and Yang, W.-C. (2020). Quinolone and Organophosphorus Insecticide Residues in Bivalves and Their Associated Risks in Taiwan. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25163636"},{"key":"ref_336","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11742","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68693-w","article-title":"Inhibition of Indole Production Increases the Activity of Quinolone Antibiotics against E. coli Persisters","volume":"10","author":"Zarkan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_337","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro3232","article-title":"Targeting Virulence: Can We Make Evolution-Proof Drugs?","volume":"12","author":"Allen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_338","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rezzoagli, C., Archetti, M., Mignot, I., Baumgartner, M., and K\u00fcmmerli, R. (2020). Combining Antibiotics with Antivirulence Compounds Can Have Synergistic Effects and Reverse Selection for Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. PLoS Biol., 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000805"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/23\/7153\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:36:00Z","timestamp":1760168160000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/26\/23\/7153"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]]},"references-count":338,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules26237153"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules26237153","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,25]]}}}