{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:58:14Z","timestamp":1787029094144,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]],"date-time":"2022-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642723200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The forensic toxicologist is challenged to provide scientific evidence to distinguish the source of ethanol (antemortem ingestion or microbial production) determined in the postmortem blood and to properly interpret the relevant blood alcohol concentration (BAC) results, in regard to ethanol levels at death and subsequent behavioral impairment of the person at the time of death. Higher alcohols (1-propanol, 1-butanol, isobutanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol (isoamyl-alcohol), and 3-methyl-2-butanol (amyl-alcohol)) are among the volatile compounds that are often detected in postmortem specimens and have been correlated with putrefaction and microbial activity. This brief review investigates the role of the higher alcohols as biomarkers of postmortem, microbial ethanol production, notably, regarding the modeling of postmortem ethanol production. Main conclusions of this contribution are, firstly, that the higher alcohols are qualitative and quantitative indicators of microbial ethanol production, and, secondly that the respective models of microbial ethanol production are tools offering additional data to interpret properly the origin of the ethanol concentrations measured in postmortem cases. More studies are needed to clarify current uncertainties about the origin of higher alcohols in postmortem specimens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27030700","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,23]],"date-time":"2022-01-23T20:34:40Z","timestamp":1642970080000},"page":"700","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Modeling Postmortem Ethanol Production\/Insights into the Origin of Higher Alcohols"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Vassiliki A.","family":"Boumba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Wigmore, J.G. (2011). Wigmore on Alcohol: Courtroom Alcohol Toxicology for the Medicolegal Professional, Irwin Law. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1080\/10915810590936391","article-title":"Insights into the origin of postmortem ethanol","volume":"24","author":"Ziavrou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2006.05.004","article-title":"Interpreting results of ethanol analysis in postmortem specimens: A review of the literature","volume":"165","author":"Kugelberg","year":"2007","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinis-Oliveira, R.J. (2021). The auto-brewery syndrome: A perfect metabolic \u201cstorm\u201d with clinical and forensic implications. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10204637"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2016.03.020","article-title":"Best-practices approach to determination of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at specific time points: Combination of ante-mortem alcohol pharmacokinetic modeling and post-mortem alcohol generation and transport considerations","volume":"78","author":"Cowan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-020-02415-9","article-title":"Evaluation and review of ways to differentiate sources of ethanol in postmortem blood","volume":"134","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS13768J","article-title":"Distinguishing ingested ethanol from microbial formation by analysis of urinary 5-hydroxytryptophol and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid","volume":"40","author":"Helander","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/S0741-8329(99)00076-2","article-title":"Ethyl glucuronide: A marker of recent alcohol consumption with clinical and forensic implications","volume":"20","author":"Wurst","year":"2000","journal-title":"Alcohol"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1007\/s004140100206","article-title":"Phosphatidyl-ethanol in postmortem blood as a marker of previous heavy drinking","volume":"115","author":"Hansson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Legal Med."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ALC.0000164372.67018.EA","article-title":"Detection of recent ethanol intake with new markers: Comparison of fatty acid ethyl esters in serum and of ethyl glucuronide and the ratio of 5-hydroxytryptophol ton 5-hydroxylndole acetic acid in urine","volume":"29","author":"Borucki","year":"2005","journal-title":"Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2006.02.045","article-title":"A study of ethyl glucuronide in post-mortem blood as a marker of ante-mortem ingestion of alcohol","volume":"165","author":"Karinen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/bky010","article-title":"Stability of ethyl glucuronide, ethyl sulfate, phosphatidylethanols and fatty acid ethyl esters in postmortem human blood","volume":"42","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11419-019-00507-9","article-title":"Assessment of the role played by n-propanol in distinction of ethanol source in postmortem blood with the assistance of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forensic Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867324666171005111911","article-title":"Biomarkers of alcohol consumption in body fluids-possibilities and limitations of application in tox icological analysis","volume":"26","author":"Wozniak","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(82)90138-4","article-title":"Medicolegal studies on alcohol detected in dead bodies-alcohol levels in skeletal muscle","volume":"20","author":"Nanikawa","year":"1982","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00205320","article-title":"Experimental studies on the mechanism of ethanol formation in corpses","volume":"101","author":"Nanikawa","year":"1988","journal-title":"Z. Rechtsmed."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1081\/CLT-120018270","article-title":"Post-mortem toxicology: What the dead can and cannot tell us","volume":"41","author":"Leikin","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Clin. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.03.015","article-title":"Ethanol formation in unadulterated postmortem tissues","volume":"146","author":"Lewis","year":"2004","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1097\/01.paf.0000127402.97576.42","article-title":"Postmortem production of ethanol and n-propanol in the brain of drowned persons","volume":"25","author":"Moriya","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.2165\/00139709-200524010-00004","article-title":"Interpretation of analytical toxicology results in life and at postmortem","volume":"24","author":"Flanagan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.08.015","article-title":"A study of volatile organic compounds evolved from the decaying human body","volume":"153","author":"Statheropoulos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-010-9150-4","article-title":"Postmortem toxicology","volume":"6","author":"Skopp","year":"2010","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-011-3417-x","article-title":"Post-mortem volatiles of vertebrate tissue","volume":"91","author":"Paczkowski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Siegel, J.A., and Saukko, P.J. (2013). Alcohol congeners and the source of ethanol. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-013-9411-0","article-title":"Alcohol congener analysis and the source of alcohol: A review","volume":"9","author":"Rodda","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Med. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12921","article-title":"Assessment of the role played by N-propanol found in postmortem blood in the discrimination between antemortem consumption and postmortem formation of ethanol using rats","volume":"61","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2672.1978.tb00776.x","article-title":"Possible sources of ethanol ante- and postmortem: Its relation to the biochemistry and microbiology of decomposition","volume":"44","author":"Corry","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Appl. Bacteriol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"50","article-title":"Congener production in blood samples during preparation and storage","volume":"32","author":"Felby","year":"1995","journal-title":"Blutalkohol"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.4103\/jfsm.jfsm_8_19","article-title":"Estimating a reliable cutoff point of 1-propanol in postmortem blood as marker of microbial ethanol production","volume":"5","author":"Boumba","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Forensic Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"109","article-title":"Concerning storage alterations of the congener content of blood and urine samples","volume":"20","author":"Bonte","year":"1983","journal-title":"Blutalkohol"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(90)90149-S","article-title":"n-Butanol in blood as the indicator of how long a dead body lay in water","volume":"46","author":"Gubala","year":"1990","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Bonte, W. (1989). Begleitstoffe alkoholischer Getr\u00e4nke, Arbeitsmethoden der medizinischen und Naturwissenschaftlichen Kriminalistik, Bd 17, Schmidt-R\u00f6mhild."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2011.03.003","article-title":"Microbial ethanol production: Experimental study and multivariate evaluation","volume":"215","author":"Boumba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2013.07.021","article-title":"Modeling microbial ethanol production by E. coli under aerobic\/anaerobic conditions: Applicability to real postmortem cases and to postmortem blood derived microbial cultures","volume":"232","author":"Boumba","year":"2013","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1007\/s00414-021-02638-4","article-title":"Modeling microbial ethanol production by S. aureus, K. pneumoniae, and E. faecalis under aerobic\/anaerobic conditions\u2014Applicability to laboratory cultures and real postmortem cases","volume":"135","author":"Velivasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2021.110809","article-title":"Modeling postmortem ethanol production by C. albicans: Experimental study and multivariate evaluation","volume":"324","author":"Velivasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saukko, P., and Knight, B. (2004). Knights Forensic Pathology: The Pathophysiology of Death, Oxford University Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b13642"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2007.03.018","article-title":"Biochemical pathways generating post-mortem volatile compounds co-detected during forensic ethanol analyse","volume":"174","author":"Boumba","year":"2008","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2011.03.024","article-title":"Complex suicide by ethanol intoxication and inhalation of fire fumes in an old lady: Interdisciplinary elucidation including post-mortem analysis of congener alcohols","volume":"209","author":"Jungmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.4323\/rjlm.2012.147","article-title":"Patterns of the most abundant volatiles detected in post-mortem blood","volume":"20","author":"Boumba","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rom. J. Leg. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s11419-019-00520-y","article-title":"Commentary on the article of Wang H, Li J, Huang Z, Wang F, Zhang Y, Chang J, Rao Y (2020) Assessment of the role played by n-propanol in distinction of ethanol source in postmortem blood with the assistance of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate","volume":"38","author":"Boumba","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forensic Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"116","article-title":"Ethanol production by Candida albicans in postmortem human blood samples: Effects of blood glucose level and dilution Forensic Sci","volume":"164","author":"Yajima","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2017.06.024","article-title":"Lack of effects of a \u201csobering\u201d product, \u201cEezup!\u201d, on the blood ethanol and congener alcohol concentration","volume":"278","author":"Wunder","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"110905","article-title":"Endogenous formation of 1-propanol and methanol after consumption of alcoholic beverages Forensic Sci","volume":"325","author":"Wunder","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/jat\/23.5.333","article-title":"Storage of specimens at 4 degrees C or addition of sodium fluoride (1%) prevents formation of ethanol in urine inoculated with Candida albicans","volume":"23","author":"Jones","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Anal. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"42","article-title":"Guidelines for collection of biological samples for clinical and forensic toxicological analysis","volume":"1","author":"Viera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.29271\/jcpsp.2021.10.1159","article-title":"Effect of temperature and preservative on neo-ethanol formation in postmortem whole blood samples","volume":"31","author":"Ahmad","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. College Physic. Surg. Pak."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agn072","article-title":"Ethanol Concentrations in Antemortem Blood Samples Under Controlled Conditions","volume":"43","author":"Zgonjanin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonte, W. (2000). Congener analysis. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Academia Press.","DOI":"10.1006\/rwfs.2000.0408"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1258\/rsmmsl.43.1.39","article-title":"Evaluating alleged drinking after driving\u2013The hip-flask defence. Part 2. Congener analysis","volume":"43","author":"Iffland","year":"2003","journal-title":"Med. Sc. Law"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/3\/700\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:05:27Z","timestamp":1760133927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/3\/700"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules27030700"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27030700","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]}}}