{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T02:24:58Z","timestamp":1773195898031,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,1]],"date-time":"2022-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643673600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Phenolic and non-phenolic chemotypes of Thymus pulegioides L. are common in Europe. Essential oils of these chemotypes, as various compositions of allelochemicals, can have different phytotoxic effects on neighboring plants in natural habitats. The aim of this study was to establish the distribution of carvacrol and geraniol in T. pulegioides, growing wild in Lithuania, and compare phytotoxity of essential oils of carvacrol and geraniol chemotypes on selected plant species. In investigating 131 T. pulegioides habitats, essential oils were isolated by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Phytotoxity of essential oils extracted from carvacrol and geraniol chemotypes transmitted through water and air to selected plants was determined under laboratory conditions. Pharmacologically valuable Hypericum perforatum L. and the important forage grass Phleum pratense L. were respectively selected for experimentation from among 35 medicinal plants and 10 feed Poaceae species, growing in T. pulegioides habitats. Field results showed that carvacrol is common throughout Lithuania\u2019s territory, whereas the geraniol is predominantly located under the continental climatic conditions of the eastern region of the country. In the laboratory experiment, it was established that there was stronger inhibition of P. pratense seed germination by the essential oil of the geraniol chemotype than the carvacrol chemotype. None of the H. perforatum seeds germinated after exposure to the essential oil of the geraniol chemotype. In general, this study builds on previous studies by providing further evidence that different T. pulegioides chemotypes have contrasting phytotoxic effects on neighboring plants within their natural habitats.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27030986","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,1]],"date-time":"2022-02-01T22:16:18Z","timestamp":1643753778000},"page":"986","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Geraniol and Carvacrol in Essential Oil Bearing Thymus pulegioides: Distribution in Natural Habitats and Phytotoxic Effect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Kristina","family":"Lo\u017eien\u0117","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nature Research Centre, Institute of Botany, \u017dali\u0173j\u0173 E\u017eer\u0173 Str. 47, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vaida","family":"Vai\u010diulyt\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nature Research Centre, Institute of Botany, \u017dali\u0173j\u0173 E\u017eer\u0173 Str. 47, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.2307\/1313392","article-title":"Thirty-Five Years of Thyme: A Tale of Two Polymorphisms. Why so many females? Why so many chemotypes?","volume":"48","author":"Thompson","year":"1998","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2008.09.011","article-title":"Selection of fecund and chemically valuable clones of thyme (Thymus) species growing wild in Lithuania","volume":"29","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"263","article-title":"The medicinal and non-medicinal uses of thyme","volume":"Volume 17","year":"2002","journal-title":"Medicinal and Aromatic Plants\u2014Industrial Profiles"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022","article-title":"Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods\u2014A review","volume":"94","author":"Burt","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/pharm01010001","article-title":"Specific Selection of Essential Oil Compounds for Treatment of Children\u2019s Infection Diseases","volume":"1","author":"Pauli","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2745.2008.01407.x","article-title":"Local adaption to biotic factors: Reciprocal transplants of four species associated with aromatic Thymus pulegioides and Thymus. serpyllum","volume":"96","author":"Groendahl","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.2008.9699964","article-title":"Chemotypes in the volatiles of wild thyme (Thymus pulegioides L.)","volume":"20","author":"Michet","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.1992.9698039","article-title":"Polymorfism of essential oil of Thymus pulegioides subc. chamaedrys in Slovakia","volume":"4","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-1978(00)00026-0","article-title":"The \u03b1-terpinyl acetate chemotype of essential oil of Thymus pulegioides L.","volume":"29","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0305-1978(02)00142-4","article-title":"Chemical composition of the essential oil of different varieties of thyme (Thymus pulegioides L.) growing wild in Lithuania","volume":"31","author":"Venskutonis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-1978(94)90086-8","article-title":"Chemotype pattern differentiation of Thymus pulegioides on different substrates","volume":"22","author":"Grejtovsky","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochem. Syst. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1080\/10412905.2005.9698948","article-title":"Chemical composition of the essential oils and the odor of Thymus pulegioides L. growing wild in Vilnius","volume":"17","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Essent. Oil Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2016.10.052","article-title":"Variation of essential oil composition of Thymus pulegioides in relation with soil chemistry","volume":"95","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-65.10.1545","article-title":"Bactericidal activities of plant essential oils and some of their isolated constituents against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica","volume":"10","author":"Friedman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Food Protect."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexmp.2013.01.006","article-title":"Geraniol attenuates 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in mouse skin: Possible role of p38 MAP Kinase and NF-\u03baB","volume":"94","author":"Khan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.6744","article-title":"Antioxidant effect of the monoterpenes carvacrol, thymol and sabinene hydrate on chemical and sensory stability of roasted sunflower seeds","volume":"95","author":"Quiroga","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3106","DOI":"10.2174\/138161208786404227","article-title":"Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Carvacrol and Carvacrol Bearing Essential oils","volume":"14","author":"Baser","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"49","article-title":"Ecological characteristics of habitats and occurrence of Thymus pulegioides (Lamiaceae) in Lithuania","volume":"27","year":"2017","journal-title":"Thaiszia J. Bot."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Balevi\u010dien\u0117, J., Kizien\u0117, B., Lazdaukait\u0117, \u017d., Patalauskait\u0117, D., Ra\u0161omavi\u010dius, V., Sinkevi\u010dien\u0117, Z., Tu\u010dien\u0117, A., and Venckus, Z. (1998). Vegetation of Lithuania. 1. Meadows, \u0160viesa."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Balevi\u010dien\u0117, J. (1991). Sintaksonomo-Fitogeografi\u010deskaja Struktura Rastitel\u2019Nosti Litvy, Mokslas."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1080\/11263504.2019.1674401","article-title":"Impact of chemical polymorphism of Thymus pulegioides on some associated plant species under natural and laboratory conditions","volume":"154","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plant. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"European Pharmacopoeia (2020). Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and HealthCare of the Council of Europe (EDQM), EDQM. [10th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensoziologie, Grundz\u00fcge der Vegetationskunde, Springer. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-8110-2"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Adams, R.P. (2007). Identification of Essential oil Components by Gas Chromatography\/Mass Spectometry, Allured Publishing Corp.. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Bukantis, A. (1994). Climate of Lithuania, Vilnius University."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2005.00728.x","article-title":"Differential resistance to freezing and spatial distribution in achemically polymorphic plant Thymus vulgaris","volume":"8","author":"Amiot","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ecol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Stahl-Biskup, E., and Sa\u00e9z, F. (2002). Population structure and the spatialdynamics of genetic polymorphism in thyme. Thyme: The Genus Thymus, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1890\/06-1973.1","article-title":"Ongoing adaption to mediterranenan climate extremes in chemically polimorphic plant","volume":"77","author":"Thompson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ecol. Monogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3787","DOI":"10.1021\/jf980987c","article-title":"The main citral-geraniol and carvacrol chemotypes of essential oil of Thymus pulegiodes growing wild in Vilnius district (Lithuania)","volume":"47","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"62","article-title":"Chemical diversity of essential oils of Thymus pulegioides and Thymus serpyllum growing in Lithuania","volume":"1","author":"Venskutonis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biologija"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.2298\/JSC1001027P","article-title":"Essential oils of Thymus pulegioides and Thymus glabrescens from Romania: Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity","volume":"75","author":"Pavel","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Serb. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"282","article-title":"Analysis from volatile compounds from infusio and hidrodistilate obtained from the species Thymus pulegioides (Lamiaceae)","volume":"57","author":"Radulescu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Farmacia"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4614","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14114614","article-title":"Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils from two species of Thymus growing wild in souththern Italy","volume":"14","author":"Bruno","year":"2009","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1021\/jf950508z","article-title":"Influence of harvesting time on yield and composition of the essential oil of a thyme (Thymus pulegioides) growing wild in Campania (Southern Italy)","volume":"46","author":"Senatore","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.46443-0","article-title":"Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Thymus pulegioides on Candida, Aspergillus and dermophyte species","volume":"55","author":"Pinto","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Med. Micro."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"233","article-title":"Das \u00e4therische \u00d6l norwegischer Thymian Arten; II","volume":"3","year":"1986","journal-title":"Thymus pulegioides. Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2006-961697","article-title":"The chemical composition of terpene alcohols and phenols from the essential oil and terpene glycosides isolated from Thymus pulegioides growing wild in Dalmantia","volume":"58","author":"Mastelic","year":"1992","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Matuszkiewicz, W. (1984). Przewodnik do oznaczania zbiorowisk ro\u015blinnych Polski, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"409","article-title":"Grey dune plant communities (Koelerio-Corynephoretea) on the Baltic coast in Latvia","volume":"29","author":"Laime","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tuexenia"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.2174\/15672050113106660171","article-title":"Reduced Alzheimer\u2019s disease pathology by St. John\u2019s Wort treatment is independent of hyperforin and facilitated by ABCC1 and microglia activation in mice","volume":"10","author":"Hofrichter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-011-1184-2","article-title":"Hypericin-based photodynamic therapy induces surface exposure of damage-associated molecular patterns like HSP70 and calreticulin","volume":"61","author":"Garg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2016.01004","article-title":"Neuroprotective Activity of Hypericum perforatum and Its Major Components","volume":"7","author":"Oliveira","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Plant. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1007\/s10681-014-1299-6","article-title":"Genetic analysis of seed related traits in Orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) under normal and drought stress conditions","volume":"203","author":"Majidi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Euphytica"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.17221\/4033-PSE","article-title":"Analysis of dry matter yield structure of forage grasses","volume":"50","author":"Kanapeckas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Plant Soil Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2011.08.003","article-title":"The ecosystem and evolutionary contexts of allelopathy","volume":"26","author":"Inderjit","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"20","article-title":"Variable phytotoxin effects of Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae) terpenes on associated species","volume":"176","author":"Linhart","year":"2015","journal-title":"IJPS"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00328907","article-title":"Intra-specific variation in the inhibitory effects of Thymus vulgaris (Labiatae) monoterpenes on seed germination","volume":"101","author":"Tarayre","year":"1995","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00333320","article-title":"Terpene-based selective herbivory by Helix aspersa (Mollusca) on Thymus vulgaris (Labiatae)","volume":"102","author":"Linhart","year":"1995","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"151","article-title":"Thyme is of the essence: Biochemical polymorphism and multi-species deterrence","volume":"1","author":"Linhart","year":"1999","journal-title":"Evol. Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1004335419358","article-title":"Inhibition of nitrification in forest soil by monoterpenes","volume":"205","author":"Pavolainen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Plant Soil"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02059813","article-title":"Monoterpenes: Their efects on ecosystem nutrient cycling","volume":"20","author":"White","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Chem. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02059809","article-title":"Higher plant terpenoids: A phytocentric overview of their ecological roles","volume":"20","author":"Langenheim","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Chem. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1038\/nchembio.2007.5","article-title":"The function of terpenes natural products in the natural world","volume":"3","author":"Gershenzon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1900278","DOI":"10.1002\/cbdv.201900278","article-title":"Preponderance of oxygenated sesquiterpenes and diterpenes in the volatile oil constituents of Lactuca serriola L. revealed antioxidant and allelopathic activity","volume":"16","author":"Elshamy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Biodivers"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/3\/986\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:12:36Z","timestamp":1760134356000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/3\/986"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,1]]},"references-count":54,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules27030986"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27030986","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,1]]}}}