{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T23:28:43Z","timestamp":1792798123009,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":246,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]],"date-time":"2022-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1652745600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuroinflammation, a protective response of the central nervous system (CNS), is associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. The CNS is composed of neurons and glial cells consisting of microglia, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes. Entry of any foreign pathogen activates the glial cells (astrocytes and microglia) and overactivation of these cells triggers the release of various neuroinflammatory markers (NMs), such as the tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 (TNF-\u03b1), interleukin-1\u03b2 (IL-1\u03b2), interleukin-1\u03b2 (IL-10), nitric oxide (NO), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), among others. Various studies have shown the role of neuroinflammatory markers in the occurrence, diagnosis, and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. These markers also trigger the formation of various other factors responsible for causing several neuronal diseases including Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD), Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD), Huntington\u2019s disease (HD), multiple sclerosis (MS), ischemia, and several others. This comprehensive review aims to reveal the mechanism of neuroinflammatory markers (NMs), which could cause different neurodegenerative disorders. Important NMs may represent pathophysiologic processes leading to the generation of neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, various molecular alterations related to neurodegenerative diseases are discussed. Identifying these NMs may assist in the early diagnosis and detection of therapeutic targets for treating various neurodegenerative diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27103194","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]],"date-time":"2022-05-17T08:34:29Z","timestamp":1652776469000},"page":"3194","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":306,"title":["RETRACTED: Neuroinflammatory Markers: Key Indicators in the Pathology of Neurodegenerative Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2429-5491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdur","family":"Rauf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Anbar 23561, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6915-7263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Himani","family":"Badoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied and Life Sciences, Uttaranchal University, Premnagar, Dehradun 248006, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2252-6225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tareq","family":"Abu-Izneid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy, Al Ain University for Science and Technology, Al Ain 64141, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8300-4538","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Olatunde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi 740272, Nigeria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2357-283X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md.","family":"Rahman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8941-2006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sakshi","family":"Painuli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Uttarakhand Council for Biotechnology (UCB), Premnagar, Dehradun 248007, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5137-5169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Prabhakar","family":"Semwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Life Sciences, Graphic Era (Deemed To Be University), Dehradun 248002, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2730-7788","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Polrat","family":"Wilairatana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9782-0835","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohammad","family":"Mubarak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1592","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2011.04.003","article-title":"Complement in the brain","volume":"48","author":"Veerhuis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. 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