{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T12:51:18Z","timestamp":1791895878717,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,12]],"date-time":"2022-08-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1660262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","award":["PNURSP2022R158"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNURSP2022R158"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Salvia officinalis is a medicinal plant used to treat some diseases, including microbial infections and diabetes. Different studies showed the biological and pharmacological properties of this species. The aim of this study was the determination of the chemical compounds of S. officinalis essential oils and the investigation of their antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. The chemical compounds of S. officinalis were determined by GC-MS analysis. The antioxidant activity was assessed by DPPH, ABTS, H2O2, and FRAP assays. The in vitro antidiabetic effect was evaluated by the inhibition of \u03b1-amylase, \u03b1-glucosidase, and lipase activities, and the anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated using the 5-lipoxygenase assay. Moreover, antibacterial activity was assessed against six bacterial strains using agar well diffusion assay and microdilution method. The main compounds in essential oils of S. officinalis at three phenological stages were naphthalenone, camphor, 1.8-cineole, and \u03b1-thujone. The full flowering stage essential oil showed the best antioxidant activity with different IC50 values according to the used tests. This oil also exhibited important inhibitory effects at the full flowering stage against \u03b1-amylase (IC50 = 69.23 \u00b1 0.1 \u03bcg\/mL), \u03b1-glucosidase (IC50 = 22.24 \u00b1 0.07 \u03bcg\/mL), and lipase (IC50 = 37.3 \u00b1 0.03 \u03bcg\/mL). The 5-lipoxygenase inhibitory effect was the best at the full flowering stage (IC50 = 9.24 \u00b1 0.03 \u03bcg\/mL). The results of the antibacterial evaluation revealed that, at three seasonal periods, S. officinalis essential oil demonstrated strong antibacterial activity. Although the full flowering stage had the best antibacterial activity, there were no significant differences between the three stages. Additionally, the essential oils showed bactericidal effects on Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella typhimurium, respectively. The findings of this work showed remarkably that S. officinalis synthesizes essential oils according to different developmental stages. Moreover, it has exhibited interesting biological and pharmacological properties justifying its medicinal effects and suggesting it as a very important source of natural drugs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27165157","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,15]],"date-time":"2022-08-15T03:33:20Z","timestamp":1660534400000},"page":"5157","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Chemical Analysis and Investigation of Biological Effects of Salvia officinalis Essential Oils at Three Phenological Stages"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5563-9491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamza M.","family":"Assaggaf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8145-2572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanae","family":"Naceiri Mrabti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Bio Pharmaceutical and Toxicological Analysis Research Team, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat 10100, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3874-9434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bodour S.","family":"Rajab","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ammar A.","family":"Attar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Reema A.","family":"Alyamani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Nutrition Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Munerah","family":"Hamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0308-1155","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nasreddine","family":"El Omari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Histology, Embryology, and Cytogenetic, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat 10100, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4842-2056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naoual","family":"El Menyiy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Pharmacology, National Agency of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Taouanate 34025, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zakaria","family":"Hazzoumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Plant and Microbial Biotechnology Center-Moroccan Foundation for Advanced Science, Innovation and Research, Rabat 10100, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5732-2818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taoufiq","family":"Benali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Environment and Health Team, Polydisciplinary Faculty of Safi, Cadi Ayyad University, Safi 46000, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3160-6008","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samiah Hamad","family":"Al-Mijalli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11671, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6548-7823","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gokhan","family":"Zengin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya 42130, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yusra","family":"AlDhaheri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab 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