{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,17]],"date-time":"2026-08-17T06:00:22Z","timestamp":1786946422195,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]],"date-time":"2022-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1666224000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["MOST 111-2221-E-992-040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 111-2221-E-992-040"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["111E09"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111E09"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["111K01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111K01"]}]},{"name":"National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology","award":["MOST 111-2221-E-992-040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 111-2221-E-992-040"]}]},{"name":"National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology","award":["111E09"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111E09"]}]},{"name":"National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology","award":["111K01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111K01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Countries are paying increasing attention to environmental issues and are moving towards the goal of energy saving and carbon reduction. This research presents a method to analyse the effects of the use of non-thermal plasma (NTP) and water injection (WI) devices on the efficiency of internal combustion engines. The devices were installed on the intake manifold to investigate the effects of additional substances produced by electrolysis on the engine performance and exhaust emissions. According to the results, the addition of the NTP and WI devices affected the power efficiency and the rate of change of the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of the internal combustion engines. In addition, the change rate of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the exhaust gases was affected. In conclusion, the study found that the additional substances generated by the NTP-electrolysed water mist or air influenced the fuel combustion efficiency and exhaust emissions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27207072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]],"date-time":"2022-10-20T22:49:46Z","timestamp":1666306186000},"page":"7072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effects of Reactive Species Produced by Electrolysis of Water Mist and Air through Non-Thermal Plasma on the Performance and Exhaust Gas of Gasoline Engines"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Chia-Hsin","family":"Hsieh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807618, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9277-3518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ming-Hsien","family":"Hsueh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807618, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Wen","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807618, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5433-1812","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tao-Hsing","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807618, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2021.121972","article-title":"Di-ethyl ether-diesel blends fuelled off-road tractor engine: Part-I: Technical feasibility","volume":"308","author":"Agarwal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23033","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-018-2407-2","article-title":"Design and experimental investigations on six-stroke SI engine using acetylene with water injection","volume":"25","author":"Gupta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2021.01.019","article-title":"Experimental optimization of engine performance of a dual-fuel compression-ignition engine operating on hydrogen-compressed natural gas and Moringa biodiesel","volume":"7","author":"Oni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112204","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4043709","article-title":"Effect of Piston Crevices on the Numerical Simulation of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Retrofitted to Natural-Gas Spark-Ignition Operation","volume":"141","author":"Stocchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Energy Resour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applthermaleng.2021.117749","article-title":"Application of artificial neural network to forecast engine performance and emissions of a spark ignition engine","volume":"201","author":"Fu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Therm. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-26528-1_7","article-title":"Water injection for gasoline engines\u2014Potentials and challenges","volume":"2019","author":"Hermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1179\/1743967113Z.00000000063","article-title":"Effects of water steam injection on direct injection diesel engine operating with partial loads","volume":"86","author":"Parlak","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1439","article-title":"Experimental Study of Inlet Manifold Water Injection on a Common Rail HSDI Automobile Diesel Engine, Compared to EGR with Respect to PM and Nox Emissions and Specific Consumption","volume":"01","author":"Shah","year":"2009","journal-title":"SAE Technical Paper Series."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2500","DOI":"10.4271\/2017-24-0149","article-title":"Evaluation of the Potential of Water Injection for Gasoline Engines","volume":"10","author":"Hoppe","year":"2017","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Engines"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2015.12.003","article-title":"Water injection for higher engine performance and lower emissions","volume":"90","author":"Mingrui","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04018044","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)EY.1943-7897.0000559","article-title":"Effect of Water Injection on Fuel Efficiency and Gaseous and PN Emissions in a Downsized Turbocharged SI Engine","volume":"144","author":"Marchitto","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Energy Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Min, S.H., and Suh, H.K. (2019). Effect of Water Vapor Injection on the Distributions of Equivalence Ratio and the NO Emission Reduction in a CI Engine. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12224248"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116765","article-title":"Investigation of water injection benefits on downsized boosted direct injection spark ignition engine","volume":"264","author":"Zhuang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.118839","article-title":"Investigation of water spray evolution process of port water injection and its effect on engine performance","volume":"282","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egyr.2021.07.113","article-title":"Water injection in spark ignition engines\u2014Impact on engine cycle","volume":"7","author":"Fratita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Energy Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apr.2016.10.005","article-title":"Exhaust gases depletion using non-thermal plasma (NTP)","volume":"8","author":"Adnan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmospheric Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5402","DOI":"10.1039\/C8RA09217F","article-title":"Nitrogen oxide removal by non-thermal plasma for marine diesel engines","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sidik, M.A.B., Nawawi, Z., Jambak, M.I., Buntat, Z., Saman, N.M., Musa, F.N., and Budiman, B.A. (2019, January 2\u20133). Removal of NOx from diesel engines vehicle: Simulation and experiment. Proceedings of the International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 2019, Batam, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICECOS47637.2019.8984485"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012085","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/509\/1\/012085","article-title":"Removal of emission gas COx, NOx and SOx from automobile using non-thermal plasma","volume":"509","author":"Nur","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hsueh, M.-H., Lai, C.-J., Hsieh, M.-C., Wang, S.-H., Hsieh, C.-H., Pan, C.-Y., and Huang, W.-C. (2021). Effect of Water Vapor Injection on the Performance and Emissions Characteristics of a Spark-Ignition Engine. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13169229"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1049\/hve2.12069","article-title":"Experimental study on the influence of H 2 O vapor and O 2 for desulfurization and denitrification of the diesel exhaust in marine application by non-thermal plasma","volume":"6","author":"Cai","year":"2021","journal-title":"High Volt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Janda, M., Hensel, K., T\u00f3th, P., Hassan, M., and Machala, Z. (2021). The Role of HNO2 in the Generation of Plasma-Activated Water by Air Transient Spark Discharge. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11157053"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2010.11.014","article-title":"Effect of hydrogen addition on lean burn performance of a spark-ignited gasoline engine at 800rpm and low loads","volume":"90","author":"Ji","year":"2011","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proci.2016.06.127","article-title":"Understanding premixed flame chemistry of gasoline fuels by comparing quantities of interest","volume":"36","author":"Selim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Combust. Inst."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2019.01.017","article-title":"Effects of atmospheric-plasma system on energy efficiency improvement and emissions reduction from a diesel engine","volume":"234","author":"Chang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2012.12.046","article-title":"Effects of exhaust gas recycle in a downsized gasoline engine","volume":"105","author":"Galloni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2009.11.090","article-title":"Conversion of a commercial spark ignition engine to run on hydrogen: Performance comparison using hydrogen and gasoline","volume":"35","author":"Sopena","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhydene.2014.11.013","article-title":"An experimental investigation on the performance characteristics of a hydroxygen enriched gasoline engine with water injection","volume":"40","author":"Dalkilic","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Hydrogen Energy"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2021.01.040","article-title":"A model to determine the effects of low proportion of hydrogen and the flame kernel radius on combustion and emission performance of direct injection spark ignition engine","volume":"147","author":"Zhen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/er.1477","article-title":"Experimental investigation on a DI dual fuel engine with hydrogen injection","volume":"33","author":"Saravanan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Energy Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2738","DOI":"10.1109\/TPS.2016.2609140","article-title":"High-Efficiency Removal of NOx From Flue Gas by Multitooth Wheel-Cylinder Corona Discharge Plasma Facilitated Selective Catalytic Reduction Process","volume":"44","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/20\/7072\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:57:56Z","timestamp":1760144276000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/27\/20\/7072"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules27207072"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules27207072","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,20]]}}}