{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T20:59:27Z","timestamp":1788296367857,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,3]],"date-time":"2023-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1672704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Centre, Poland","award":["2017\/26\/E\/ST5\/00162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017\/26\/E\/ST5\/00162"]}]},{"name":"National Science Centre, Poland","award":["2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00127"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00127"]}]},{"name":"National Science Centre, Poland","award":["SUB\/2\/DN\/22\/001\/2201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SUB\/2\/DN\/22\/001\/2201"]}]},{"name":"Medical University of Bia\u0142ystok, Poland","award":["2017\/26\/E\/ST5\/00162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017\/26\/E\/ST5\/00162"]}]},{"name":"Medical University of Bia\u0142ystok, Poland","award":["2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00127"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020\/04\/X\/ST5\/00127"]}]},{"name":"Medical University of Bia\u0142ystok, Poland","award":["SUB\/2\/DN\/22\/001\/2201"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SUB\/2\/DN\/22\/001\/2201"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this article, we describe the antimicrobial properties of pristine anodised aluminium oxide matrices\u2014the material many consider biologically inert. During a typical anodisation process, chromium and chlorine compounds are used for electropolishing and the removal of the first-step aluminium oxide. Matrices without the use of those harmful compounds were also fabricated and tested for comparison. The antibacterial tests were conducted on four strains of Escherichia coli: K12, R2, R3 and R4. The properties of the matrices were also compared to the three types of antibiotics: ciprofloxacin, bleomycin and cloxacillin using the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) tests. Moreover, DNA was isolated from the analysed bacteria which was additionally digested with formamidopyrimidine-DNA glycosylase (Fpg) protein from the group of repair glycosases. These enzymes are markers of modified oxidised bases in nucleic acids produced during oxidative stress in cells. Preliminary cellular studies, MIC and MBC tests and digestion with Fpg protein after modification of bacterial DNA suggest that these compounds may have greater potential as antibacterial agents than the aforementioned antibiotics. The described composites are highly specific for the analysed model Escherichia coli strains and may be used in the future as new substitutes for commonly used antibiotics in clinical and nosocomial infections in the progressing pandemic era. The results show much stronger antibacterial properties of the functionalised membranes on the action of bacterial membranes in comparison to the antibiotics in the Fpg digestion experiment. This is most likely due to the strong induction of oxidative stress in the cell through the breakdown of the analysed bacterial DNA.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28010401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,4]],"date-time":"2023-01-04T02:54:55Z","timestamp":1672800895000},"page":"401","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Aluminium(III) Oxide\u2014The Silent Killer of Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8166-855X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mateusz","family":"Schabikowski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-342 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4025-3750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Kowalczyk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Nutrition, The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-110 Jab\u0142onna, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5121-5368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Karczmarska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-342 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Gawdzik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Chemistry, Jan Kochanowski University, 25-406 Kielce, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0555-8690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Wypych","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Modern Interdisciplinary Technologies, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, 87-100 Toru\u0144, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karol","family":"Kramkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Chemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, 15-089 Bia\u0142ystok, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2261-7127","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Karol","family":"Wrzosek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Heart Diseases, The Medical Center of Postgraduate Education, 01-813 Warszawa, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2426-3916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Laskowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Nuclear Physics Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-342 Krak\u00f3w, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L1340","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.37.L1340","article-title":"Self-ordering of cell configuration of anodic porous alumina with large-size pores in phosphoric acid solution","volume":"37","author":"Masuda","year":"1998","journal-title":"Jpn. 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