{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T21:52:14Z","timestamp":1779918734282,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]],"date-time":"2023-02-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675728000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In cultural heritage, unaesthetic stains on carbonate stones due to their close contacts with metals are of concern for the preservation of sculptures, monumental facades and archeological finds of various origin and antiquities. Rust stains made up of various oxidized iron compounds are the most frequent forms of alteration. The presence of ferric iron on rust-stained marble surfaces was confirmed in previous studies and oriented the choice of the best cleaning method (based on complexing agents specific for ferric ions). However, the composition of rust stains may vary along their extension. As the corrosion of the metallic iron proceeds, if the oxygen levels in the surroundings are low and there are no conditions to favor the oxidation, ferrous ions can also diffuse within the carbonate structure and form a variety of intermediate compounds. In this study, the iron stains on archeological marbles were compared with those artificially produced on Carrara marbles and Travertine samples. The use of integrated techniques (optical and scanning electron microscopy as well as M\u00f6ssbauer and XPS spectroscopy) with complementary analytical depths, has provided the overall information. Rust formation and diffusion mechanisms in carbonates were revealed together with the evolution of iron speciation and identification of phases such as ferrihydrite, goethite, maghemite, nanomagnetite, and hematite.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28041582","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,8]],"date-time":"2023-02-08T01:32:05Z","timestamp":1675819925000},"page":"1582","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Analytical Investigation of Iron-Based Stains on Carbonate Stones: Rust Formation, Diffusion Mechanisms, and Speciation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"Rita","family":"Reale","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemistry Department, University of Rome \u2018La Sapienza\u2019 Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6097-9714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giovanni Battista","family":"Andreozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth Sciences Department, University of Rome \u2018La Sapienza\u2019 Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"CNR-IGAG c\/o Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5780-4400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Pia","family":"Sammartino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chemistry Department, University of Rome \u2018La Sapienza\u2019 Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7990-8764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna Maria","family":"Salvi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science Department, University of Basilicata, Viale dell\u2019Ateneo Lucano 10, 85100 Potenza, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/i2019-12943-0","article-title":"Air pollution impact on carbonate building stones in Italian urban sites","volume":"134","author":"Vidorni","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. 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