{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T16:22:23Z","timestamp":1787415743027,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1692230400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"FWO (Brussels)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G054719N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G054719N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"FWO (Brussels)","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund ERDF","award":["G054719N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G054719N"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund ERDF","award":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"]}]},{"name":"EU project IPERION-HS","award":["G054719N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G054719N"]}]},{"name":"EU project IPERION-HS","award":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["H2020-INFRAIA-2019-1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, the chromatic alteration of various types of paints, present on mural painting fragments derived from the vaults of The Upper Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi in Italy (12th\u201313th century), is studied using synchrotron radiation. Six painted mural fragments, several square centimeters in size, were available for analysis, originating from the ceiling paintings attributed to Cimabue and Giotto; they correspond to originally white, blue\/green, and brown\/yellow\/orange areas showing discoloration. As well as collecting macroscopic X-ray fluorescence and diffraction maps from the entire fragments in the laboratory and at the SOLEIL synchrotron, corresponding paint cross-sections were also analyzed using microscopic X-ray fluorescence and powder diffraction mapping at the PETRA-III synchrotron. Numerous secondary products were observed on the painted surfaces, such as (a) copper tri-hydroxychloride in green\/blue areas; (b) corderoite and calomel in vermillion red\/cinnabar-rich paints; (c) plattnerite and\/or scrutinyite assumed to be oxidation products of (hydro)cerussite (2PbCO3\u00b7Pb(OH)2) in the white areas, and (d) the calcium oxalates whewellite and weddellite. An extensive presence of chlorinated metal salts points to the central role of chlorine-containing compounds during the degradation of the 800-year-old paint, leading to, among other things, the formation of the rare mineral cumengeite (21PbCl2\u00b720Cu(OH)2\u00b76H2O).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28166106","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]],"date-time":"2023-08-17T10:47:02Z","timestamp":1692269222000},"page":"6106","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Multi-Scale X-ray Imaging of the Pigment Discoloration Processes Triggered by Chlorine Compounds in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis of Assisi"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5982-1482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ermanno","family":"Avranovich Clerici","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven","family":"de Meyer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1238-0189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederik","family":"Vanmeert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"},{"name":"Paintings Laboratory, Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage (KIK-IRPA), Jubelpark 1, 1000 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1991-2443","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stijn","family":"Legrand","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9489-7805","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Letizia","family":"Monico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"},{"name":"Scientific Methodologies Applied to Archaeology Centre of Excellence (SMAArt), Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123 Perugia, Italy"},{"name":"CNR-SCITEC, c\/o Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnology, University of Perugia, Via Elce di Sotto 8, 06123 Perugia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6091-9922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Costanza","family":"Miliani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CNR-ISPC, Institute of Cultural Heritage Sciences, Via Card. G. Sanfelice 8, 80134 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6752-6408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koen","family":"Janssens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antwerp X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Laboratory (AXIS) Research Group, NANOLab Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium"},{"name":"Rijksmuseum, Conservation and Restoration, P.O. Box 74888, 1070 DN Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Eastaugh, N., Walsh, V., Chaplin, T., and Siddall, R. (2004). Pigment Compendium: A Dictionary of Historical Pigments, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Basile, G. (2009). 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