{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T10:57:01Z","timestamp":1790420221877,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]],"date-time":"2023-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698019200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"TWAS-ICCBS","award":["project N\u00b0 3240311211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["project N\u00b0 3240311211"]}]},{"name":"The Grand Challenges Africa (GCA)","award":["program [GCA\/DD\/rnd3\/006]"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["program [GCA\/DD\/rnd3\/006]"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Plasmodium falciparum and Leishmania sp. resistance to antiparasitic drugs has become a major concern in malaria and leishmaniasis control. These diseases are public health problems with significant socioeconomic impacts, and mostly affect disadvantaged populations living in remote tropical areas. This challenge emphasizes the need to search for new chemical scaffolds that preferably possess novel modes of action to contribute to antimalarial and antileishmanial research programs. This study aimed to investigate the antimalarial and antileishmanial properties of a methanol extract (KS-MeOH) of the stem bark of the Cameroonian medicinal plant Khaya senegalensis and its isolated compounds. The purification of KS-MeOH led to the isolation of a new ordered limonoid derivative, 21\u03b2-hydroxybourjotinolone A (1a), together with 15 known compounds (1bc\u201314) using a repeated column chromatography. Compound 1a was obtained in an epimeric mixture of 21\u03b1-melianodiol (1b) and 21\u03b2-melianodiol (1c). Structural characterization of the isolated compounds was achieved with HRMS, and 1D- and 2D-NMR analyses. The extracts and compounds were screened using pre-established in vitro methods against synchronized ring stage cultures of the multidrug-resistant Dd2 and chloroquine-sensitive\/sulfadoxine-resistant 3D7 strains of Plasmodium falciparum and the promastigote form of Leishmania\u00a0donovani (1S(MHOM\/SD\/62\/1S). In addition, the samples were tested for cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 macrophages. Positive controls consisted of artemisinin and chloroquine for P. falciparum, amphotericin B for L. donovani, and podophyllotoxin for cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells. The extract and fractions exhibited moderate to potent antileishmanial activity with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) ranging from 5.99 \u00b1 0.77 to 2.68 \u00b1 0.42 \u03bcg\/mL, while compounds displayed IC50 values ranging from 81.73 \u00b1 0.12 to 6.43 \u00b1 0.06 \u03bcg\/mL. They were weakly active against the chloroquine-sensitive\/sulfadoxine-resistant Pf3D7 strain but highly potent toward the multidrug-resistant PfDd2 (extracts, IC50 2.50 \u00b1 0.12 to 4.78 \u00b1 0.36 \u03bcg\/mL; compounds IC50 2.93 \u00b1 0.02 to 50.97 \u00b1 0.37 \u03bcg\/mL) with selectivity indices greater than 10 (SIDd2 &gt; 10) for the extract and fractions and most of the derived compounds. Of note, the limonoid mixture [21\u03b2-hydroxylbourjotinolone A (1a) + 21\u03b1-melianodiol (1b) + 21\u03b2-melianodiol (1c)] exhibited moderate activity against P. falciparum and L. donovani. This novel antiplasmodial and antileishmanial chemical scaffold qualifies as a promising starting point for further medicinal chemistry-driven development of a dually active agent against two major infectious diseases affecting humans in Africa.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28207227","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]],"date-time":"2023-10-23T10:34:20Z","timestamp":1698057260000},"page":"7227","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Antiplasmodial and Antileishmanial Activities of a New Limonoid and Other Constituents from the Stem Bark of Khaya senegalensis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"Gabrielle Ange","family":"Amang \u00e0 Ngnoung","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 814, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7081-1093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yves Oscar","family":"Nganso Ditchou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 814, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4268-3746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peron Bosco","family":"Leutcha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 814, Cameroon"},{"name":"Natural Product and Environmental Chemistry Group (NAPEC), Department of Chemistry, Higher Teachers\u2019 Training College, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 55, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3387-4102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Darline","family":"Dize","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antimicrobial and Biocontrol Agents Unit (AmBcAU), Laboratory for Phytobiochemistry and Medicinal Plants Studies, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaound\u00e9 I, Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 812, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simplice Jo\u00ebl Ndendoung","family":"Tatsimo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Product and Environmental Chemistry Group (NAPEC), Department of Chemistry, Higher Teachers\u2019 Training College, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 55, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauve Rachel Yamthe","family":"Tchokouaha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Pharmacology, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 13033, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Theodora Kopa","family":"Kowa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Phytochemistry, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 13033, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7126-3447","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Babalwa","family":"Tembeni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria 0204, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3502-7409","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamadou","family":"Mamoudou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 814, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7289-3408","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madan","family":"Poka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria 0204, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick Hulisani","family":"Demana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria 0204, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8667-8351","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xavier","family":"Siwe Noundou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria 0204, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3147-364X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrice","family":"Fekam Boyom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Antimicrobial and Biocontrol Agents Unit (AmBcAU), Laboratory for Phytobiochemistry and Medicinal Plants Studies, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Yaound\u00e9 I, Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 812, Cameroon"},{"name":"Laboratory of Pharmacology, Centre for Research on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Medicinal Plants Studies, Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 13033, Cameroon"},{"name":"Advanced Research and Health Innovation Hub (ARHIH), Yaound\u00e9 P.O. Box 20133, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5422-0357","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alain","family":"Meli Lannang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Product and Environmental Chemistry Group (NAPEC), Department of Chemistry, Higher Teachers\u2019 Training College, University of Maroua, Maroua P.O. Box 55, Cameroon"},{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical Engineering and Mineral Industries, University of Ngaoundere, Ngaoundere P.O. Box 454, Cameroon"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tetlet.2013.03.103","article-title":"Cipadessin-type limonoids from the leaves of Cipadessa baccifera","volume":"54","author":"Siva","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1248\/bpb.29.191","article-title":"Limonoids: Overview of significant bioactive triterpenes distributed in plants kingdom","volume":"29","author":"Roy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Biol. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1981","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9422(98)00364-1","article-title":"Limonoids from Swietenia humilis and Guarea grandiflora (Meliaceae) Taken in part from the PhD and MS theses of C. Villarreal and MA Jim\u00e9nez, respectively","volume":"49","author":"Jimenez","year":"1998","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bmc.2011.01.007","article-title":"Chisopanins A\u2013K, 11 new protolimonoids from Chisocheton paniculatus and their anti-inflammatory activities","volume":"19","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Bioorg. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1248\/cpb.c14-00770","article-title":"Limonoids from the stem bark of Khaya senegalensis","volume":"63","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chem. Pharm. Bull."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1080\/10286020.2013.794419","article-title":"Two new compounds from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"15","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2024","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.201200320","article-title":"Senegalensions A\u2013C, three limonoids from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"7","author":"Yuan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Asian J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1021\/np1000158","article-title":"Limonoids and triterpenoids from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"73","author":"Yuan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.55248\/gengpi.2022.3.8.41","article-title":"A Review of the Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of the Medicinal Plant: Khaya Senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss","volume":"3","author":"Tyoapine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Res. Publ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gouissi, D.H.A., Nzangue, R.T., Kalaza, J.H., Pabo, W., and Chegaing, S.P.F. (2021). Medicinal Plants Used for Malaria Treatment in Gamba Village, North Region of Cameroon: Ethnopharmacological Survey; In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous Extracts of Khaya Senegalensis Bark. Res. Sq., 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-438203\/v1"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.11648\/j.sjc.20200804.13","article-title":"Inhibitory effect and antimicrobial activity of secondary metabolites of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. (Meliaceae)","volume":"8","author":"Nganso","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.31254\/phyto.2014.3204","article-title":"Antimicrobial qualities, phytochemistry and micronutritional content of Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Seed oil","volume":"3","author":"Idu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1007\/s10600-017-1977-4","article-title":"Ergostane steroids, tirucallane and apotirucallane triterpenes from Guarea convergens","volume":"53","author":"Hayasida","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chem. Nat. Compd."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leutcha, B.P., Dzoyem, J.P., Jouda, J.B., Sema, D.K., Tsague, T.V.F., Bitchagno, G.T.M., and Sewald, N. (2022). Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities of Constituents from the Fruit of Albizia lebbeck L. Benth (Fabaceae). Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27154823"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1515\/znb-2021-0076","article-title":"A new phenanthrene derivative from Entada abyssinica with antimicrobial and antioxidant properties","volume":"77","author":"Magnibou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Z Fur Naturforsch. B"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.5b01137","article-title":"Cytotoxic tirucallane and apotirucallane triterpenoids from the stems of Picrasma quassioides","volume":"79","author":"Xu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1590\/S0001-37652002000300004","article-title":"Chemical constituents of Simarouba versicolor","volume":"74","author":"Arriaga","year":"2002","journal-title":"An. Acad. Bras. Cienc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2000-9901","article-title":"Phytochemical investigation of Aglaia andamanica","volume":"66","author":"Puripattanavong","year":"2000","journal-title":"Planta Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9422(92)90048-U","article-title":"Limonoids from Trichilia hirta","volume":"31","author":"Cortez","year":"1992","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2021.112759","article-title":"Cytotoxic triterpenoids from Chisocheton pentandrus","volume":"187","author":"Salam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4417","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2020.1723085","article-title":"Cytotoxicity of a new tirucallane derivative isolated from Stereospermum acuminatissimum K. Schum stem bark","volume":"35","author":"Leutcha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1002\/ijch.197700006","article-title":"21,20-anhydromelianone and melianone from Simarouba amara (Simaroubaceae); carbon-13 NMR spectral analysis of \u03947-tirucallol-type triterpenes","volume":"16","author":"Polonsky","year":"1977","journal-title":"Isr. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1021\/np0103970","article-title":"Triterpenoid constituents of Raulinoa echinata","volume":"65","author":"Biavatti","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2483","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-4020(01)88767-6","article-title":"Pentacyclic triterpenoid sapogenols and their glycosides from Terminalia bellerica","volume":"48","author":"Mahato","year":"1992","journal-title":"Tetrahedron"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1523","DOI":"10.1515\/chem-2020-0167","article-title":"A new phenyl alkyl ester and a new combretin triterpene derivative from Combretum fragrans F. Hoffm (Combretaceae) and antiproliferative activity","volume":"18","author":"Gade","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chae, H.J., Kim, G.J., Deshar, B., Kim, H.J., Shin, M.J., Kwon, H., and Suh, S.S. (2021). Anticancer activity of 2-O-caffeoyl alphitolic acid extracted from the Lichen, Usnea barbata 2017-KL-10. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26133937"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"558","article-title":"Isolation and quantitative analysis of betulinic acid and alphitolic acid from Zyziphi fructus","volume":"40","author":"Bae","year":"1996","journal-title":"Yakhak Hoeji."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.978","article-title":"Antifungal activity of limonoids from Khaya ivorensis","volume":"61","author":"Abdelgaleil","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pest. Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1021\/np9701687","article-title":"Limonoids showing selective toxicity to DNA repair-deficient yeast and other constituents of Trichilia emetica","volume":"61","author":"Gunatilaka","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"327","article-title":"Khayseneganins A\u2013H, Limonoids from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"76","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1021\/np020067v","article-title":"Three new modified limonoids from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"65","author":"Nakatani","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7750","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules20057750","article-title":"Anti-trypanosomal activity of Nigerian plants and their constituents","volume":"28","author":"Nwodo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1515\/znc-2017-0166","article-title":"Flavonoids and triterpenes from Combretum fragrans with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antidiabetic potential","volume":"73","author":"Mbiantcha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Z. Naturforsch. C"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4545","DOI":"10.1016\/S0040-4039(02)00745-1","article-title":"Catechin and epicatechin deprotonation followed by 13C NMR","volume":"43","author":"Wieruszeski","year":"2002","journal-title":"Tetrahedron Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1002\/jccs.200400211","article-title":"Cerebrosides from the rhizomes of Gynura japonica","volume":"51","author":"Lin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chin. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"94","article-title":"Isolation of stigmasterol and \u03b2-sitosterol from petroleum ether extract of aerial parts of Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae)","volume":"3","author":"Kamboj","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"99","article-title":"Le O-\u03b2-D-glucoside du \u03b2-sitost\u00e9rol Isol\u00e9 des Feuilles de Ravenala madagascariensis","volume":"26","author":"Ramiarantsoa","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Soc. Ouest-Afr. Chim."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"5","article-title":"Scopoletin and \u00ce\u00b2-sitosterol glucoside from roots of Ipomoea digitata","volume":"4","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2008.09.005","article-title":"Screening of medicinal plants from Reunion Island for antimalarial and cytotoxic activity","volume":"120","author":"Jonville","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3037","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules14083037","article-title":"Plant-derived antimalarial agents: New leads and efficient phytomedicines. Part II. Nonalkaloidal natural products","volume":"14","author":"Batista","year":"2009","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"WHO (2023, September 27). Leishmaniasis. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/leishmaniasis."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"WHO (2023, September 27). Malaria. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/malaria."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ponte-Sucre, A., Gamarro, F., Dujardin, J.C., Barrett, M.P., L\u00f3pez-V\u00e9lez, R., Garc\u00eda-Hern\u00e1ndez, R., Pountain, A.W., Mwenechanya, R., and Papadopoulou, B. (2017). Drug resistance and treatment failure in leishmaniasis: A 21st century challenge. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0006052"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jnatprod.9b01285","article-title":"Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs over the Nearly Four Decades from 01\/1981 to 09\/2019","volume":"83","author":"Newman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nat. Prod."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-6147(99)01302-4","article-title":"Artemisinin drugs in the treatment of malaria: From medicinal herb to registered medication","volume":"20","author":"Eggelte","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1039\/b008980j","article-title":"Antimalarial activity of plant metabolites","volume":"19","author":"Schwikkard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-8741(98)00129-9","article-title":"Antiplasmodial activity of selected Sudanese medicinal plants with emphasis on Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.)","volume":"64","author":"Tahir","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"4659","article-title":"Antiplasmodial activity of extracts of Khaya senegalensis (DERS.) A. Jus (Meliaceae) and Melia azedarach L.; Plants of Senegalese Traditional Medicine","volume":"9","author":"Manga","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Shayoub, M.E.A., Kabbashi, A.S., Osman, H.M., Mahmoud, A.N., Elhassan, A.M., Dawoud, A.D.H., and Jawad, A.S.A. (2016). Anti-malarial activity of Khaya senegalensis. Indo Am. J. Pharm. Res., 6."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2006.09.030","article-title":"Antileishmanial activities associated with plants used in the Malian traditional medicine","volume":"110","author":"Ahua","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1076\/phbi.39.4.284.5921","article-title":"Antileishmania and immunostimulating activities of two dimeric proanthocyanidins from Khaya senegalensis","volume":"39","author":"Kayser","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mandal, S.C., Chakraborty, R., and Sen, S. (2021). Evidence Based Validation of Traditional Medicines: A Comprehensive Approach, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-8127-4"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2021.114906","article-title":"Contribution of Meliaceous plants in furnishing lead compounds for antiplasmodial and insecticidal drug development","volume":"285","author":"Happi","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Djoumessi, A.K., Nono, R.N., Neumann, B., Stammler, H.G., Bitchagno, G.T.M., Efange, N.M., Nkenfou, C.N., Ayong, L., Lenta, B.N., and Sewald, N. (2023). Constituents of the Stem Bark of Trichilia monadelpha (Thonn.) J. J. De Wilde (Meliaceae) and Their Antibacterial and Antiplasmodial Activities. Metabolites, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13020298"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1080\/13880200601009123","article-title":"Bioassay-guided isolation of antimalarial triterpenoid acids from the leaves of Morinda lucida","volume":"44","author":"Cimanga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pharm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules16021825","article-title":"Antileishmanial activity of the hydroalcoholic extract of miconia langsdorffii, isolated compounds, and semisynthetic derivatives","volume":"16","author":"Peixoto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Molecules"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1078\/0944-7113-00381","article-title":"Antileishmanial activity of isolated triterpenoids from Pourouma guianensis","volume":"11","author":"Lopes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mogana, R., Adhikari, A., Debnath, S., Hazra, S., Hazra, B., Teng-Jin, K., and Wiart, C. (2014). The antiacetylcholinesterase and antileishmanial activities of Canarium patentinervium Miq. Biomed Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/903529"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.4103\/pm.pm_571_16","article-title":"Catechin Isolated from Garcinia celebica Leaves Inhibit Plasmodium falciparum Growth through the Induction of Oxidative Stress","volume":"13","author":"Rizky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacogn. Mag."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3391216","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3391216","article-title":"In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of the Leaf Extract of Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne and Its Major Compound (-) Catechin","volume":"2022","author":"Kemal","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Trop. Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.4314\/ajtcam.v4i1.31200","article-title":"Antimalarial activity in crude extracts of some Cameroonian medicinal plants","volume":"4","author":"Bickii","year":"2007","journal-title":"Afr. J. Trad. Compl. Alt. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3182","DOI":"10.1080\/14786419.2018.1553879","article-title":"Antileishmanial and cytotoxic activities of a new limonoid and a new phenyl alkene from the stem bark of Trichilia gilgiana (Meliaceae)","volume":"34","author":"Kowa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fitote.2013.11.004","article-title":"Triterpenoids from the fruits of Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)","volume":"92","author":"Kurimoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fitoterapia"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14209","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.14209","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of Melianodiol on DSS-induced ulcerative colitis in mice","volume":"10","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2008.12.004","article-title":"Khayanolides from African mahogany Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae): A revision","volume":"70","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.48.5.1803-1806.2004","article-title":"Simple and inexpensive fluorescence-based technique for high-throughput antimalarial drug screening","volume":"48","author":"Smilkstein","year":"2004","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siqueira-Neto, J.L., Song, O.R., Oh, H., Sohn, J.H., Yang, G., Nam, J., Jang, J., Cechetto, J., Lee, C.B., and Moon, S. (2010). Antileishmanial high-throughput drug screening reveals drug candidates with new scaffolds. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000675"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpddr.2012.02.002","article-title":"Application of a resazurin-based high-throughput screening assay for the identification and progression of new treatments for human African trypanosomiasis","volume":"2","author":"Bowling","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Drugs Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2015.07.011","article-title":"Antrocarines A-F, antiplasmodial ergostane steroids from the stem bark of Antrocaryon klaineanum","volume":"117","author":"Douanla","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1759(83)90303-4","article-title":"Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: Application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays","volume":"65","author":"Mosmann","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Methods"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/28\/20\/7227\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:10:16Z","timestamp":1760130616000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/28\/20\/7227"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules28207227"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules28207227","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,23]]}}}