{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T22:32:29Z","timestamp":1777501949986,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]],"date-time":"2023-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"American University of Sharjah","award":["FRG22-C-S77"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRG22-C-S77"]}]},{"name":"American University of Sharjah","award":["2021R1A2C1093183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A2C1093183"]}]},{"name":"American University of Sharjah","award":["2021R1A4A1032746"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A4A1032746"]}]},{"name":"Open Access Program from the American University of Sharjah","award":["FRG22-C-S77"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRG22-C-S77"]}]},{"name":"Open Access Program from the American University of Sharjah","award":["2021R1A2C1093183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A2C1093183"]}]},{"name":"Open Access Program from the American University of Sharjah","award":["2021R1A4A1032746"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A4A1032746"]}]},{"name":"the Korean government (MSIT) through National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["FRG22-C-S77"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FRG22-C-S77"]}]},{"name":"the Korean government (MSIT) through National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["2021R1A2C1093183"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A2C1093183"]}]},{"name":"the Korean government (MSIT) through National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)","award":["2021R1A4A1032746"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021R1A4A1032746"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are persistent toxic compounds that are ubiquitous in the environment. Nanocomposites of titanium(IV) oxide-vanadium(III) oxide (Ti3V2O7) and titanium(IV) oxide-silicon dioxide (Ti2Si7O30) were prepared and spectroscopically analyzed as potential decontaminants for dioxin-like materials. The analysis confirmed a homogeneous morphology with nanoscale particle size. The Ti-Si sample was found to have a high surface area compared to the Ti-V composite. Vanadium(III) oxide (V2O5) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) were chosen as materials for the formation of heterogeneous compounds with titanium(IV) oxide (TiO2) because they possess a suitable band alignment with TiO2, thus forming effective photocatalysts. This study evaluated the photodegradation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-furan (TCDF) in the presence of Ti-Si and Ti-V oxide composites, which was tested using high- (254 nm) and midenergy (302 nm) UV irradiation sources. While Ti-Si showed success in the photodegradation of 2,3,7,8-TCDF dissolved in a (1:1) methanol\u2013tetrahydrofuran (MeOH-THF) solution, the Ti-V composite proved to be a powerful material in adsorbing TCDF with a high capacity immediately upon mixing. Ti-Si oxide was found to decompose TCDF under the two irradiation sources with 98\u201399% degradation occurring after 70 min. The use of 254 nm as an irradiation source in the presence of Ti-Si was 4.3 times faster than the analogue reaction irradiated without a catalyst. Byproducts of the degradation were evaluated using gas chromatography\u2013mass spectrometry (GC\u2013MS), resulting in a lower chlorinated congener and less toxicity, as the main degradation product.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28227488","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T03:42:40Z","timestamp":1699501360000},"page":"7488","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Applicability of Titanium-Based Catalysts in the Photocatalytic Degradation of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8905-8238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fatin","family":"Samara","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rasha","family":"Darra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7369-3117","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed A.","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2160-3962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Waqas","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Materials Science and Engineering Program, College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nedal","family":"Abu-Farha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6687-8022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haesung","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program in Environmental & Polymer Engineering, Graduate School of INHA University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8636-2859","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Changseok","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program in Environmental & Polymer Engineering, Graduate School of INHA University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Environmental Engineering, INHA University, Incheon 22212, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7492-2281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofian","family":"Kanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, American University of Sharjah, Sharjah 26666, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1007\/s11164-017-2913-8","article-title":"Photocatalytic UV degradation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran in the presence of silver zeolite","volume":"46","author":"Samara","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Chem. Intermed."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2022, December 01). Persistent Organic Pollutants: A Global Issue, a Global Response|US EPA, Available online: www.epa.gov\/international-cooperation\/persistent-organic-pollutants-global-issue-global-response."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2014.05.077","article-title":"Overview of the PCDD\/fs degradation potential and formation risk in the application of advanced oxidation processes (AOPS) to wastewater treatment","volume":"118","author":"Vallejo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.teac.2017.12.001","article-title":"Dioxins and furans: A review from chemical and environmental perspectives","volume":"17","author":"Kanan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Environ. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1729","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-03551-y","article-title":"A review of persistent organic pollutants: Dioxins, furans, and their associated nitrogenated analogues","volume":"2","author":"Kirkok","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Urbaniak, M., and Wyrwicka, A. (2017). Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery, BoD\u2013Books on Demand."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2017.12.056","article-title":"Spectroscopic analyses and genotoxicity of dioxins in the aquatic environment of Alexandria","volume":"127","author":"Osman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012024","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/2045\/1\/012024","article-title":"Detection techniques for monitoring dioxin-like compounds: Latest techniques and the comparison","volume":"2045","author":"Du","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samara, F., Ghalayini, T., Abu Farha, N., and Kanan, S. (2020). The photocatalytic degradation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in the presence of silver\u2013titanium based catalysts. Catalysts, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal10090957"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proenv.2012.10.091","article-title":"Pollution Control Technologies of dioxins in municipal solid waste incinerator","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1007\/s10934-021-01118-9","article-title":"Monoliths of TiO2-SiO2: Synthesis, characterization and photocatalytic activity","volume":"28","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Porous Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arabjc.2014.12.009","article-title":"Photocatalytic UV-degradation of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in the presence of silver doped zeolite","volume":"12","author":"Samara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arab. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"557","article-title":"Design of active photocatalysts and visible light photocatalysis","volume":"32","author":"Moradi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Photocatal. Fundam. Process. Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, S., Park, J.-S., and Ishihara, T. (2023). A review of the single-step flame synthesis of defective and heterostructured TiO2 nanoparticles for photocatalytic applications. Catalysts, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/catal13010196"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcat.2010.05.015","article-title":"Photocatalytic oxidation of cyclohexane by titanium dioxide: Catalyst deactivation and regeneration","volume":"273","author":"Carneiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Catal."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2017.08.048","article-title":"Influence of methanol when used as a water-miscible carrier of pharmaceuticals in TiO2 photocatalytic degradation experiments","volume":"5","author":"Arlos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcata.2020.117547","article-title":"Degradation aspects of endocrine disrupting chemicals: A review on photocatalytic processes and photocatalysts","volume":"597","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. A Gen."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/s11051-020-05097-x","article-title":"Preparation of graphdiyne-doped TiO2\/SiO2 composite for enhanced photocatalytic activity","volume":"22","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nanoparticle Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uncu, I., Roata, I.C., Croitoru, C., and Machedon-Pisu, T. (2021). Visible domain photocatalysis performance of Ti-Si Thermal-sprayed coatings. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14010085"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Cajes, V. (2022, December 01). Identification of Photodegradation Products from Commonenvironmental Pollutants Using Gas Chromatography Coupled with High Resolution Mass Spectrometry (Dissertation). Available online: https:\/\/urn.kb.se\/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:oru:diva-100739."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icarus.2007.03.010","article-title":"Light scattering by Fluffy Mg\u2013Fe\u2013SIO and C mixtures as cometary analogs (PROGRA2 experiment)","volume":"190","author":"Hadamcik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Icarus"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2005.11.032","article-title":"Light scattering by fluffy particles with the PROGRA2 experiment: Mixtures of materials","volume":"100","author":"Hadamcik","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1707","DOI":"10.1021\/la011428u","article-title":"Identification of surface sites on monoclinic wo3 powders by infrared spectroscopy","volume":"18","author":"Kanan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1039\/b107993j","article-title":"Synthesis of high surface area monoclinic WO3 particles using organic ligands and emulsion based methods","volume":"12","author":"Lu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mater. Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9576","DOI":"10.1021\/jp014647x","article-title":"A comparative study of the adsorption of chloro- and methyl-containing organophosphonates on WO3","volume":"106","author":"Kanan","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. B"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1163\/156856706778400280","article-title":"Infrared study of uv irradiated tungsten trioxide powders containing adsorbed dimethyl methyl phosphonate and trimethyl phosphate","volume":"32","author":"Waghe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Res. Chem. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s11120-009-9439-x","article-title":"Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy","volume":"101","author":"Berthomieu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Photosynth. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2023, October 19). IR Spectrum and Characteristic Absorption Bands. Chemistry LibreTexts, Libretexts. Available online: chem.libretexts.org\/Bookshelves\/Organic_Chemistry\/Organic_Chemistry_I_(Liu)\/06%3A_Structural_Identification_of_Organic_Compounds-_IR_and_NMR_Spectroscopy\/6.03%3A_IR_Spectrum_and_Characteristic_Absorption_Bands#:~:text=The%20absorption%20bands%20in%20IR,show%20more%20intense%20absorption%20band."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"14","article-title":"Solar Assisted Photocatalytic Degradation of Reactive Azo Dyes in Presence of Anatase Titanium Dioxide","volume":"2","author":"Dey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Latest Res. Eng. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2023, October 19). Guide to FT-IR Spectroscopy. Bruker. Available online: www.bruker.com\/en\/products-and-solutions\/infrared-and-raman\/ft-ir-routine-spectrometer\/what-is-ft-ir-spectroscopy.html#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20symmetric%20and,those%20energies%20of%20IR%20light."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107722","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.107722","article-title":"Brookite vs. Rutile vs. anatase: What\u2019s behind their various photocatalytic activities?","volume":"10","author":"Pintar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1829","DOI":"10.1007\/s11671-010-9720-0","article-title":"Preparation of highly crystalline TiO2 nanostructures by acid-assisted hydrothermal treatment of hexagonal-structured nanocrystalline Titania\/Cetyltrimethyammonium bromide Nanoskeleton","volume":"5","author":"Dai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nanoscale Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apcatb.2011.06.039","article-title":"Innovative visible light-activated sulfur doped TiO2 films for water treatment","volume":"107","author":"Han","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Catal. B Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4294","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ra23031g","article-title":"Cathodic ald V2O5 thin films for high-rate electrochemical energy storage","volume":"3","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2016.00035","article-title":"Optimized nanostructured TiO2 photocatalysts","volume":"3","author":"Topcu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Mater."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nicoara, A.I., Ene, V.L., Voicu, B.B., Bucur, M.A., Neacsu, I.A., Vasile, B.S., and Iordache, F. (2020). Biocompatible Ag\/Fe-enhanced TiO2 nanoparticles as an effective compound in sunscreens. Nanomaterials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano10030570"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2022, August 01). In-DF1 Kit Insert. Available online: www.cape-tech.com\/literature\/kits\/in_df1a.htm."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfl055","article-title":"The 2005 World Health Organization re-evaluation of human and mammalian toxic equivalency factors for dioxins and dioxin-like compounds","volume":"93","author":"Birnbaum","year":"2006","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727496","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/727496","article-title":"Titanium dioxide as a catalyst support in heterogeneous catalysis","volume":"2014","author":"Bagheri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-016-6807-x","article-title":"Catalytic destruction of PCDD\/FS over vanadium oxide-based catalysts","volume":"23","author":"Yu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2013.01.087","article-title":"Ozone-enhanced oxidation of PCDD\/Fs over V2O5\u2013TiO2-based catalyst","volume":"92","author":"Ji","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7042","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-15477-y","article-title":"PCDD\/F removal at low temperatures over vanadium-based catalyst: Insight into the superiority of mechanochemical method","volume":"29","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2022.108148","article-title":"E-peroxone process of a chlorinated compound: Oxidant species, degradation pathway and phytotoxicity","volume":"10","author":"Romero","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/28\/22\/7488\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:19:33Z","timestamp":1760131173000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/28\/22\/7488"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules28227488"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules28227488","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,8]]}}}