{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T17:13:13Z","timestamp":1792084393495,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,11]],"date-time":"2024-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1726012800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2024JJ7358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ7358"]}]},{"name":"Hunan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["202302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202302"]}]},{"name":"Key Discipline Project on Chinese Pharmacology of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine","award":["2024JJ7358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JJ7358"]}]},{"name":"Key Discipline Project on Chinese Pharmacology of Hunan University of Chinese Medicine","award":["202302"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202302"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gardenia flower not only has extremely high ornamental value but also is an important source of natural food and spices, with a wide range of uses. To support the development of gardenia flower products, this study used headspace gas chromatography\u2013ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC\u2013IMS) technology to compare and analyze the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of fresh gardenia flower and those after using four different drying methods (vacuum freeze-drying (VFD), microwave drying (MD), hot-air drying (HAD), and vacuum drying (VD)). The results show that, in terms of shape, the VFD sample is almost identical to fresh gardenia flower, while the HAD, MD, and VD samples show significant changes in appearance with clear wrinkling; a total of 59 volatile organic compounds were detected in the gardenia flower, including 13 terpenes, 18 aldehydes, 4 esters, 8 ketones, 15 alcohols, and 1 sulfide. Principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), and partial least-squares regression analysis (PLS-DA) were performed on the obtained data, and the research found that different drying methods impact the VOCs of the gardenia flower. VFD or MD may be the most effective alternative to traditional sun-drying methods. Considering its drying efficiency and production cost, MD has the widest market prospects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29184300","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,11]],"date-time":"2024-09-11T03:55:17Z","timestamp":1726026917000},"page":"4300","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A Comparison Analysis of Four Different Drying Treatments on the Volatile Organic Compounds of Gardenia Flowers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4686-6507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiangli","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wen","family":"Ai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Powder and Medicine Innovation in Hunan (Incubation), Science and Technology Innovation Center, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyi","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4221-574X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Powder and Medicine Innovation in Hunan (Incubation), Science and Technology Innovation Center, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shunxiang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"Hunan Province Sino-US International Joint Research Center for Therapeutic Drugs of Senile Degenerative Diseases, Changsha 410208, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Powder and Medicine Innovation in Hunan (Incubation), Science and Technology Innovation Center, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, N., Bian, Y., and Yao, L. (2022). Essential Oils of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis and Gardenia jasminoides f. longicarpa Z.W. Xie & M. Okada Flowers: Chemical Characterization and Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Alveolar Macrophage. Pharmaceutics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/pharmaceutics14050966"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"155374","article-title":"Neuropharmacological insights into Gardenia jasminoides Ellis: Harnessing therapeutic potential for central nervous system disorders","volume":"125","author":"Hou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phytomed. Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, N., Luo, M., He, L., and Yao, L. (2020). Chemical Composition of Essential Oil from Flower of \u2018Shanzhizi\u2019 (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) and Involvement of Serotonergic System in Its Anxiolytic Effect. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25204702"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"200","article-title":"Effects of Drying and Extraction Methods on Components and Activities of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis Flower","volume":"49","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Tollenaere, M., Chapuis, E., Martinez, J., Paulus, C., Dupont, J., Don Simoni, E., Robe, P., Sennelier-Portet, B., Auriol, D., and Scandolera, A. (2023). Gardenia jasminoides Extract, with a Melatonin-like Activity, Protects against Digital Stress and Reverses Signs of Aging. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24054948"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Zang, C., Shang, J., Zhang, Z., Wang, L., Yang, H., Sheng, C., Yuan, F., Ju, C., and Li, F. (Food Nutr. Res., 2022). Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis extract GJ-4 attenuates hyperlipidemic vascular dementia in rats via regulating PPAR-\u03b3-mediated microglial polarization, Food Nutr. Res., available online.","DOI":"10.29219\/fnr.v66.8101"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyun, B.J., Lee, J.Y., Kim, Y.J., Ji, K.Y., Jung, D.H., Park, K.S., Jo, K., Choi, S., Jung, M.A., and Kim, Y.H. (2021). Gardenia jasminoides Attenuates Allergic Rhinitis-Induced Inflammation by Inhibiting Periostin Production. Pharmaceuticals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph14100986"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2021.113958","article-title":"Properties and molecular mechanisms underlying geniposide-mediated therapeutic effects in chronic inflammatory diseases","volume":"273","author":"Ran","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1178","article-title":"Antidepressant-like effect of the water extract of the fixed combination of Gardenia jasminoides, Citrus aurantium and Magnolia officinalis in a rat model of chronic unpredictable mild stress","volume":"22","author":"Xing","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phytomed. Int. J. Phytother. Phytopharm."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagan, T.A., Cai, W., and Hua, H. (2018). Repellency, toxicity, and anti-oviposition of essential oil of Gardenia jasminoides and its four major chemical components against whiteflies and mites. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-27366-5"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113719","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2023.113719","article-title":"Combining with volatilomic profiling and chemometrics to explore the volatile characteristics in five different dried Zanthoxylum bungeanum maxim","volume":"175","author":"Feng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2023.100807","article-title":"The impact of different drying methods on the physical properties, bioactive components, antioxidant capacity, volatile components and industrial application of coffee peel","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12898","article-title":"Emerging drying techniques for food safety and quality: A review","volume":"21","author":"Fathi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suo, K., Feng, Y., Zhang, Y., Yang, Z., Zhou, C., Chen, W., Shi, L., and Yan, C. (2023). Comparative Evaluation of Quality Attributes of the Dried Cherry Blossom Subjected to Different Drying Techniques. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13010104"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Li, H., Cao, W., Chen, Z., Gao, J., Zheng, H., Lin, H., and Qin, X. (2023). Effect of Drying Process on the Formation of the Characteristic Flavor of Oyster (Crassostrea hongkongensis). Foods, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods12112136"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1498","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.16944","article-title":"Comparison of different drying methods for bergamot peel: Chemical and physicochemical properties","volume":"89","author":"Demircan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100656","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2023.100656","article-title":"Effects of different drying treatments on the microstructure, free amino acids, volatile compounds and antioxidant activity of Flammulina velutipes root","volume":"18","author":"Sun","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baibuch, S., Zema, P., Bonifazi, E., Cabrera, G., Mondrag\u00f3n Portocarrero, A.D.C., Campos, C., and Malec, L. (2023). Effect of the Drying Method and Optimization of Extraction on Antioxidant Activity and Phenolic of Rose Petals. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12030681"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135432","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2023.135432","article-title":"Characterization and discrimination of volatile organic compounds and lipid profiles of truffles under different treatments by UHPLC-QE Orbitrap\/MS\/MS and P&T-GC-MS","volume":"410","author":"Ma","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2023.113103","article-title":"Characteristic fingerprints and comparison of volatile flavor compounds in Morchella sextelata under different drying methods","volume":"172","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1989","article-title":"Effect of different drying methods on volatile components in Lycium barbarum fruits from Qaidam based on GC-IMS","volume":"34","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Prod. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Zhang, Z., Zhang, X., Tian, X., Chen, K., and Zeng, X. (2022). Characterization of Volatile Compounds by HS-GC-IMS and Chemical Composition Analysis of Colored Highland Barley Roasted at Different Temperatures. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11182921"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fochx.2023.100707","article-title":"Characteristic volatiles fingerprints in olive vegetable stored at different conditions by HS-GC-IMS","volume":"18","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Chem. X"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Liu, Q. (2021). The Preparation of Gardeniae Flos and Aurantii Flos Capsules and Their Pharmacodynamics in the Treatment of Sleep Disorder Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. [Unpublished Master\u2019s Thesis, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine]."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Zhang, H. (2023). Inhibition of Yellowing of Broccoli by Trans-2-hexenal and Preparation of Fresh-keeping Products. [Unpublished Master\u2019s Thesis, Shandong Agricultural University]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, W., Zhao, L., Johnson, E.T., Xie, Y., and Zhang, M. (2022). Natural food flavour (E)-2-hexenal, a potential antifungal agent, induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in Aspergillus flavus conidia via a ROS-dependent pathway. Int. J. Food Microbiol., 370.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109633"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.8b06367","article-title":"(E)-2-Hexenal, as a Potential Natural Antifungal Compound, Inhibits Aspergillus flavus Spore Germination by Disrupting Mitochondrial Energy Metabolism","volume":"67","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallianou, I., and Hadzopoulou-Cladaras, M. (2016). Camphene, a Plant Derived MonoterpenE,Exerts Its Hypolipidemic Action by Affecting SREBP-1 and MTP Expression. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147117"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2014.893502","article-title":"Biosynthesis and role of 3-methylbutanal in cheese by lactic acid bacteria: Major metabolic pathways, enzymes involved, and strategies for control","volume":"57","author":"Afzal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1218(91)90128-9","article-title":"Aldehydes: Occurrence, carcinogenic potential, mechanism of action and risk assessment","volume":"259","author":"Feron","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mutat. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4761","DOI":"10.1007\/s13197-022-05560-8","article-title":"Multivariate analysis of chemometric based aroma dynamics in small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) during drying","volume":"59","author":"Mishra","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt0308-303","article-title":"What is principal component analysis?","volume":"26","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4223","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.1717","article-title":"Differentiation between wild and artificial cultivated Stephaniae tetrandrae radix using chromatographic and flow-injection mass spectrometric fingerprints with the aid of principal component analysis","volume":"8","author":"Qin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/29\/18\/4300\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T15:53:37Z","timestamp":1760111617000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/29\/18\/4300"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,11]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules29184300"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules29184300","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,11]]}}}