{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T15:22:46Z","timestamp":1785770566254,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]],"date-time":"2024-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome (SWS) is a rare congenital neurocutaneous disorder typically caused by a somatic mosaic mutation in R183Q GNAQ. At-risk children present at birth with a capillary malformation port-wine birthmark. The primary diagnostic characteristic of the disorder includes leptomeningeal enhancement of the brain, which demonstrates abnormal blood vessels and results in impaired venous drainage and impaired local cerebral perfusion. Impaired cerebral blood flow is complicated by seizures resulting in strokes, hemiparesis and visual field deficits, hormonal deficiencies, behavioral impairments, and intellectual disability. Therefore, anti-seizure medication in combination with low-dose aspirin is a common therapeutic treatment strategy. Recently published data indicate that the underlying mutation in endothelial cells results in the hyperactivation of downstream pathways and impairment of the blood\u2013brain barrier. Cannabidiol (CBD) has been used to treat medically refractory seizures in SWS due to its anti-seizure, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. Pilot research suggests that CBD improves cognitive impairment, emotional regulation, and quality of life in patients with SWS. Recent preclinical studies also suggest overlapping molecular pathways in SWS and in CBD, suggesting that CBD may be uniquely effective for SWS brain involvement. This review aims to summarize early data on CBD\u2019s efficacy for preventing and treating epilepsy and neuro-cognitive impairments in patients with SWS, likely molecular pathways impacted, and provide insights for future translational research to improve clinical treatment for patients with SWS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules29225279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]],"date-time":"2024-11-08T04:02:54Z","timestamp":1731038574000},"page":"5279","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Review of Sturge\u2013Weber Syndrome Brain Involvement, Cannabidiol Treatment and Molecular Pathways"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Katharine Elizabeth","family":"Joslyn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Developmental Medicine, Hugo Moser Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-0330-7512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas Flinn","family":"Truver","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Developmental Medicine, Hugo Moser Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anne Marie","family":"Comi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Developmental Medicine, Hugo Moser Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"},{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1213507","article-title":"Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome and port-wine stains caused by somatic mutation in GNAQ","volume":"368","author":"Shirley","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-62702-5.00011-1","article-title":"Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"132","author":"Comi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1002\/cns3.20031","article-title":"Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome: Updates in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment","volume":"1","author":"Valery","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Child Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/088307389501000113","article-title":"Sturge-Weber Syndrome: Age of Onset of Seizures and Glaucoma and the Prognosis for Affected Children","volume":"10","author":"Sujansky","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2020.10.013","article-title":"Sirolimus treatment in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"115","author":"Sebold","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2022.10.014","article-title":"Cannabidiol treatment for neurological, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms in Sturge-Weber Syndrome","volume":"139","author":"Smegal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2017.02.009","article-title":"Cannabidiol treatment for refractory seizures in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"71","author":"Kaplan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"27","article-title":"Laser treatment of port-wine stains","volume":"8","author":"Brightman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.0903","article-title":"Driver mutations in uveal melanoma: Associations with gene expression profile and patient outcomes","volume":"134","author":"Decatur","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2017.05.053","article-title":"Size of Facial Port-Wine Birthmark May Predict Neurologic Outcome in Sturge-Weber Syndrome","volume":"188","author":"Dymerska","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"409","article-title":"Pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of glaucoma associated with Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome","volume":"38","author":"Javaid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"415","article-title":"Ocular manifestations of the sturge\u2013weber syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Hassanpour","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Ophthalmic Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9394(99)00259-7","article-title":"Ahmed glaucoma valve implant for management of glaucoma in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"128","author":"Hamush","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S1091-8531(98)90036-2","article-title":"The efficacy of goniotomy\/trabeculotomy in early-onset glaucoma associated with the Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Olsen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Assoc. Pediatr. Ophthalmol. Strabismus"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000003455","article-title":"Enlargement of deep medullary veins during the early clinical course of Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"88","author":"Pilli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073818801635","article-title":"Yield of Emergent Neuroimaging in Patients With Sturge-Weber Syndrome Presenting With Acute Neurologic Symptoms","volume":"34","author":"Neuberger","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2929","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-024-06490-w","article-title":"Radio-pathologic correlation: No pial angioma-subarachnoid varicose network drainage pathway in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"40","author":"Venkatakrishna","year":"2024","journal-title":"Childs Nerv. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A1350","article-title":"A spectrum of unusual neuroimaging findings in patients with suspected Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Adams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.22687","article-title":"Cortical calcification in Sturge-Weber Syndrome on MRI-SWI: Relation to brain perfusion status and seizure severity","volume":"34","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2011.01.005","article-title":"Clinical outcomes in bilateral Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"44","author":"Alkonyi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1097\/NRL.0b013e318220c5b6","article-title":"Presentation, diagnosis, pathophysiology, and treatment of the neurological features of Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"17","author":"Comi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurologist"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2021.06.030","article-title":"Quantitative EEG improves prediction of Sturge-Weber syndrome in infants with port-wine birthmark","volume":"132","author":"Gill","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2011.10.004","article-title":"A perfusion-metabolic mismatch in Sturge-Weber syndrome: A multimodality imaging study","volume":"34","author":"Alkonyi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2019.11.001","article-title":"Transient episodes of hemiparesis in Sturge Weber Syndrome\u2013Causes, incidence and recovery","volume":"25","author":"Tillmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"3","article-title":"Toward a better understanding of stroke-like episodes in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"25","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. EJPN Off. J. Eur. Paediatr. Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2018.04.009","article-title":"Hypothesis: Presymptomatic treatment of Sturge-Weber syndrome with aspirin and antiepileptic drugs may delay seizure onset","volume":"90","author":"Day","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1002\/cns3.20058","article-title":"Retrospective analysis of presymptomatic treatment in Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Valery","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Child Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2019.05.013","article-title":"Neurological complications of Sturge-Weber syndrome: Current status and unmet needs","volume":"98","author":"Luat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3769","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.122.038585","article-title":"Updates on sturge-weber syndrome","volume":"53","author":"Yeom","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1177\/088307380001501004","article-title":"Psychological Functioning in Children and Adolescents With Sturge-Weber Syndrome","volume":"15","author":"Chapieski","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.1007\/s10803-021-05062-0","article-title":"The prevalence and profile of autism in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"52","author":"Sloneem","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Autism Dev. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073812451326","article-title":"Sturge-Weber syndrome: Clinical spectrum, disease course, and outcome of 30 patients","volume":"28","author":"Jagtap","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0b013e3181fe75ee","article-title":"Behavioral and psychiatric features of Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"198","author":"Turin","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073808329529","article-title":"Hemiparesis is a clinical correlate of general adaptive dysfunction in children and adolescents with Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"24","author":"Reesman","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2019.04.004","article-title":"Quality of life in children with Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"101","author":"Harmon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2015.10.015","article-title":"Anticonvulsant efficacy in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"58","author":"Kaplan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2174\/1568026053386962","article-title":"Mechanisms of action of antiepileptic drugs","volume":"5","author":"Czapinski","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1528-1157.2001.042suppl.3008.x","article-title":"GABAergic mechanisms in epilepsy","volume":"42","author":"Treiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1533-2500.2004.04304.x","article-title":"Side effects of antiepileptics\u2014A review","volume":"4","author":"Walia","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pain Pract."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2003.11.008","article-title":"Cognitive side effects of antiepileptic drugs","volume":"5","author":"Ortinski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spen.2015.10.005","article-title":"Current therapeutic options in Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"22","author":"Comi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1177\/0883073812463607","article-title":"Aspirin use in Sturge-Weber syndrome: Side effects and clinical outcomes","volume":"28","author":"Lance","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2023.01.018","article-title":"Cannabidiol modulates excitatory-inhibitory ratio to counter hippocampal hyperactivity","volume":"111","author":"Rosenberg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-021-00827-8","article-title":"The pharmacology and clinical efficacy of antiseizure medications: From bromide salts to cenobamate and beyond","volume":"35","author":"Klein","year":"2021","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1345","DOI":"10.1590\/1806-9282.2022d689","article-title":"Use of cannabidiol in the treatment of epilepsy: Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome, and tuberous sclerosis complex","volume":"68","author":"Silvinato","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Assoc. M\u00e9dica Bras."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2016.10.010","article-title":"Somatic GNAQ mutation is enriched in brain endothelial cells in Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome","volume":"67","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-148X.2012.00979.x","article-title":"The genetics of uveal melanoma: An emerging framework for targeted therapy","volume":"25","author":"Harbour","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Melanoma Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3233(07)74001-9","article-title":"Structural basis of effector regulation and signal termination in heterotrimeric G\u03b1 proteins","volume":"74","author":"Sprang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Protein Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(92)90165-9","article-title":"Phospholipase C-\u03b21 is a GTPase-activating protein for Gq\/11, its physiologic regulator","volume":"70","author":"Berstein","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2315011120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2315011120","article-title":"The mechanism of G\u03b1q regulation of PLC\u03b23-catalyzed PIP2 hydrolysis","volume":"120","author":"Falzone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbior.2014.10.001","article-title":"Role of IP3 receptor signaling in cell functions and diseases","volume":"57","author":"Mikoshiba","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Biol. Regul."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1919","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddab144","article-title":"A novel somatic mutation in GNB2 provides new insights to the pathogenesis of Sturge\u2013Weber syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Marciniak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2020.03.978","article-title":"Identification of a mosaic activating mutation in GNA11 in atypical Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"141","author":"Thorpe","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1000584","article-title":"Mutations in GNA11 in uveal melanoma","volume":"363","author":"Griewank","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2012.06.037","article-title":"Regulation of the Hippo-YAP pathway by G-protein-coupled receptor signaling","volume":"150","author":"Yu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2024.113926","article-title":"The Hippo signaling pathway in development and regeneration","volume":"43","author":"Zhong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martinez Naya, N., Kelly, J., Corna, G., Golino, M., Abbate, A., and Toldo, S. (2023). Molecular and cellular mechanisms of action of cannabidiol. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28165980"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.12610","article-title":"The case for medical marijuana in epilepsy","volume":"55","author":"Maa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2017.02.022","article-title":"The direct actions of cannabidiol and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol at GABAA receptors","volume":"119","author":"Bakas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e58593","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.58593","article-title":"Cannabidiol interactions with voltage-gated sodium channels","volume":"9","author":"Sait","year":"2020","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"209","article-title":"Inhibitory actions of the gamma-aminobutyric acid in pediatric Sturge-Weber syndrome","volume":"66","author":"Tyzio","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol. Off. J. Am. Neurol. Assoc. Child Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.2174\/1570159X13666150216222543","article-title":"TRPV1 channel: A potential drug target for treating epilepsy","volume":"13","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0704327","article-title":"Molecular targets for cannabidiol and its synthetic analogues: Effect on vanilloid VR1 receptors and on the cellular uptake and enzymatic hydrolysis of anandamide","volume":"134","author":"Bisogno","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1083646","article-title":"A modular PIP2 binding site as a determinant of capsaicin receptor sensitivity","volume":"300","author":"Prescott","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shuba, Y.M. (2021). Beyond neuronal heat sensing: Diversity of TRPV1 heat-capsaicin receptor-channel functions. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2020.612480"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2010.01.021","article-title":"Effects of TRPV1 activation on synaptic excitation in the dentate gyrus of a mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy","volume":"223","author":"Bhaskaran","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-015-1391-7","article-title":"\u03b1-Spinasterol, a TRPV1 receptor antagonist, elevates the seizure threshold in three acute seizure tests in mice","volume":"122","author":"Nieoczym","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2013.10.010","article-title":"TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine suppresses 4-AP-induced epileptiform activity in vitro and electrographic seizures in vivo","volume":"250","author":"Ladas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1089\/can.2019.0028","article-title":"Anticonvulsive properties of cannabidiol in a model of generalized seizure are transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 dependent","volume":"5","author":"Gray","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cannabis Cannabinoid Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anand, U., Jones, B., Korchev, Y., Bloom, S.R., Pacchetti, B., Anand, P., and Sodergren, M.H. (2020). CBD effects on TRPV1 signaling pathways in cultured DRG neurons. J. Pain Res., 2269\u20132278.","DOI":"10.2147\/JPR.S258433"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1021\/cn5000524","article-title":"Nonpsychotropic plant cannabinoids, cannabidivarin (CBDV) and cannabidiol (CBD), activate and desensitize transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels in vitro: Potential for the treatment of neuronal hyperexcitability","volume":"5","author":"Iannotti","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satpute Janve, V., Anderson, L.L., Bahceci, D., Hawkins, N.A., Kearney, J.A., and Arnold, J.C. (2021). The heat sensing Trpv1 receptor is not a viable anticonvulsant drug target in the Scn1a+\/\u2212 mouse model of Dravet syndrome. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.675128"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3337","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.16350","article-title":"Cannabidiol attenuates seizure susceptibility and behavioural deficits in adult CDKL5R59X knock-in mice","volume":"59","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Negri, S., Faris, P., Soda, T., and Moccia, F. (2021). Endothelial signaling at the core of neurovascular coupling: The emerging role of endothelial inward-rectifier K+ (Kir2. 1) channels and N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in the regulation of cerebral blood flow. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 135.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2021.105983"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2025998118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2025998118","article-title":"PIP2 corrects cerebral blood flow deficits in small vessel disease by rescuing capillary Kir2. 1 activity","volume":"118","author":"Dabertrand","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1124\/mol.107.043323","article-title":"Tissue-specific regulation of microvascular diameter: Opposite functional roles of neuronal and smooth muscle located vanilloid receptor-1","volume":"73","author":"Kark","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2009.00625.x","article-title":"GPR55 ligands promote receptor coupling to multiple signalling pathways","volume":"160","author":"Henstridge","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvp208","article-title":"Lysophosphatidylinositol induces rapid phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and activating transcription factor 2 in HEK293 cells expressing GPR55 and IM-9 lymphoblastoid cells","volume":"147","author":"Oka","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"771","article-title":"Advances in the physiology of GPR55 in the central nervous system","volume":"15","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2020.106935","article-title":"GABAergic interneurons in epilepsy: More than a simple change in inhibition","volume":"121","author":"Marafiga","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11229","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711351114","article-title":"Cannabidiol attenuates seizures and social deficits in a mouse model of Dravet syndrome","volume":"114","author":"Kaplan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2699","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0711278105","article-title":"GPR55 is a cannabinoid receptor that increases intracellular calcium and inhibits M current","volume":"105","author":"Lauckner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5193","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1211204110","article-title":"Cannabinoid-and lysophosphatidylinositol-sensitive receptor GPR55 boosts neurotransmitter release at central synapses","volume":"110","author":"Sylantyev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7895","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0511232103","article-title":"Inhibition of an equilibrative nucleoside transporter by cannabidiol: A mechanism of cannabinoid immunosuppression","volume":"103","author":"Carrier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5526","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.08-2196","article-title":"Mediation of cannabidiol anti-inflammation in the retina by equilibrative nucleoside transporter and A2A adenosine receptor","volume":"49","author":"Liou","year":"2008","journal-title":"Investig. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.22751","article-title":"Adenosine A2A receptor in the monkey basal ganglia: Ultrastructural localization and colocalization with the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 in the striatum","volume":"520","author":"Bogenpohl","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.110.003285","article-title":"International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. LXXXI. Nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors\u2014An update","volume":"63","author":"Fredholm","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4956","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-13-04956.1997","article-title":"Adenosine A1 receptor-mediated activation of phospholipase C in cultured astrocytes depends on the level of receptor expression","volume":"17","author":"Biber","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2009.10.023","article-title":"The neuroprotective effect of cannabidiol in an in vitro model of newborn hypoxic\u2013ischemic brain damage in mice is mediated by CB2 and adenosine receptors","volume":"37","author":"Castillo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2080","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3574-05.2006","article-title":"Presynaptic control of striatal glutamatergic neurotransmission by adenosine A1\u2013A2A receptor heteromers","volume":"26","author":"Ciruela","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2015.11.018","article-title":"Protein phosphatase role in adenosine A1 receptor-induced AMPA receptor trafficking and rat hippocampal neuronal damage in hypoxia\/reperfusion injury","volume":"102","author":"Stockwell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9621","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3991-13.2014","article-title":"Prolonged adenosine A1 receptor activation in hypoxia and pial vessel disruption focal cortical ischemia facilitates clathrin-mediated AMPA receptor endocytosis and long-lasting synaptic inhibition in rat hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses: Differential regulation of GluA2 and GluA1 subunits by p38 MAPK and JNK","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atalay, S., Jarocka-Karpowicz, I., and Skrzydlewska, E. (2019). Antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of cannabidiol. Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9010021"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/29\/22\/5279\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:28:28Z","timestamp":1760113708000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/29\/22\/5279"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules29225279"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules29225279","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,8]]}}}