{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T13:39:11Z","timestamp":1790948351405,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743033600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005632","name":"National Centre for Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LIDER\/21\/0120\/L-10\/18\/NCBR\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LIDER\/21\/0120\/L-10\/18\/NCBR\/2019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Excessive blood loss is a leading cause of mortality among soldiers and accident victims. The wound healing process typically ranges from three weeks to several months, with disruptions in healing stages potentially prolonging recovery time. Chronic wounds may persist for years, creating a favorable environment for microbial growth. Chitosan, a derivative of chitin\u2014the second most abundant biopolymer in nature\u2014is obtained through deacetylation and exhibits mucoadhesive, analgesic, antioxidant, biodegradable, non-toxic, and biocompatible properties. Due to its hemostatic and regenerative support capabilities, chitosan is widely applied in the food, cosmetic, and agricultural industries; environmental protection; and as a key component in dressings for chronic wound healing. Notably, its antibacterial properties make it a promising candidate for novel biomaterials to replace traditional antibiotics and prevent the emergence of drug-resistant strains. The primary aim of this study was the chemical cross-linking of chitosan with the amino acids L-aspartic and L-glutamic acid in the presence of periclase (magnesium oxide) under microwave radiation conditions. Subsequent research stages involved the analysis of the samples\u2019 physicochemical properties using SEM, FT-IR, XPS, atomic absorption spectrometry, swelling behavior (in water, SBF, and blood), porosity, and density. Biological assessments included biodegradation, cytotoxicity, and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The obtained results confirmed the high potential of the newly developed hemostatic agents for effective hemorrhage management under non-sterile conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30071496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T03:35:28Z","timestamp":1743132928000},"page":"1496","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Synthesis and Characterization of Magnesium Oxide-Enhanced Chitosan-Based Hemostatic Gels with Antibacterial Properties: Role of Amino Acids and Crosslinking"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5909-6121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Radwan-Prag\u0142owska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paulina","family":"B\u0105k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u0141ukasz","family":"Janus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Sierakowska-Byczek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5243-8229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Radomski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Technology and Environmental Analytics, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Agnieszka","family":"Kramek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Faculty of Mechanics and Technology, Rzeszow University of Technology, ul. Kwiatkowskiego 4, 37-450 Stalowa Wola, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Component Manufacturing and Production Organization, Rzesz\u00f3w University of Technology, 37-450 Stalowa Wola, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5873-8791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Justyna","family":"Gumieniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Faculty of Mechanics and Technology, Rzeszow University of Technology, ul. Kwiatkowskiego 4, 37-450 Stalowa Wola, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Component Manufacturing and Production Organization, Rzesz\u00f3w University of Technology, 37-450 Stalowa Wola, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dariusz","family":"Bogda\u0142","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biotechnology and Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24 Street, 31-155 Cracow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8172","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c06806","article-title":"Design Considerations, Formulation Approaches, and Strategic Advances of Hydrogel Dressings for Chronic Wound Management","volume":"8","author":"Solanki","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Omega"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2017.12.046","article-title":"Hydrogel wound dressings for bioactive treatment of acute and chronic wounds","volume":"100","author":"Koehler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"6","article-title":"Chitosan as a Hemostatic Agent: Current State","volume":"2","author":"Pogorielov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2018.11.045","article-title":"A review on recent advances in chitosan based composite for hemostatic dressings","volume":"124","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"2","article-title":"Multi-responsive chitosan-based hydrogels for controlled release of vincristine","volume":"6","author":"Omrani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun. Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1021\/acsbiomaterials.2c01297","article-title":"Chitosan Derivatives as Carriers for Drug Delivery and Biomedical Applications","volume":"9","author":"Manna","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.progpolymsci.2006.06.001","article-title":"Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications","volume":"31","author":"Rinaudo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1381-5148(00)00038-9","article-title":"A review of chitin and chitosan applications","volume":"46","year":"2000","journal-title":"React. Funct. Polym."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2637","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.biomac.7b01058","article-title":"Antimicrobial Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives: A Review of the Structure-Activity Relationship","volume":"18","author":"Sahariah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomacromolecules"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2637","DOI":"10.1021\/sc500634p","article-title":"Recent advances in graft copolymerization and applications of chitosan: A review","volume":"2","author":"Thakur","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1844","article-title":"Hydrogel-Based Strategies for the Management of Osteomyelitis","volume":"9","author":"Kuo","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1962","DOI":"10.3390\/md8071962","article-title":"Chitosan modification and pharmaceutical\/biomedical applications","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mar. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaczmarek, M.B., Struszczyk-Swita, K., Li, X., Szcz\u0119sna-Antczak, M., and Daroch, M. (2019). Enzymatic modifications of chitin, chitosan, and chitooligosaccharides. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2019.00243"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2009.07.027","article-title":"On the nature of biomaterials","volume":"30","author":"Williams","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2019.04.038","article-title":"Biocompatible hydrogels of chitosan-alkali lignin for potential wound healing applications","volume":"102","author":"Ravishankar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elangwe, C.N., Morozkina, S.N., Olekhnovich, R.O., Krasichkov, A., Polyakova, V.O., and Uspenskaya, M.V. (2022). A Review on Chitosan and Cellulose Hydrogels for Wound Dressings. Polymers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym14235163"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"428","article-title":"Oxides","volume":"2","author":"Bowles","year":"2021","journal-title":"Encycl. Geol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1002\/apj.2123","article-title":"Preparation of periclase (MgO) nanoparticles from dolomite by pyrohydrolysis\u2013calcination processes","volume":"12","author":"Altiner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1093\/petrology\/egp007","article-title":"Crystal size distribution of periclase in contact metamorphic dolomite marbles from the Southern Adamello Massif, Italy","volume":"50","author":"Baumgartner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Petrol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1127\/0935-1221\/2001\/0013\/0871","article-title":"Crystal-chemical reasons for the immiscibility of periclase and wustite under lithospheric P,T conditions","volume":"13","author":"Boiocchi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mineral."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riyadh, S.M., Khalil, K.D., and Aljuhani, A. (2018). Chitosan-MgO nanocomposite: One pot preparation and its utility as an ecofriendly biocatalyst in the synthesis of thiazoles and [1,3,4]thiadiazoles. Nanomaterials, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano8110928"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"aa5b49","article-title":"Synergistic effect of MgO nanoparticles from electrochemical sensing, photocatalytic-dye degradation and antibacterial activity","volume":"4","author":"Lingaraju","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Res. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matpr.2021.05.340","article-title":"Green synthesis of MgO nanoparticles using Phyllanthus emblica for Evans blue degradation and antibacterial activity","volume":"49","author":"Ananda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mater. Today Proc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"975","DOI":"10.1080\/16583655.2020.1792117","article-title":"Synthesis, structural, dielectric and optical properties of chitosan-MgO nanocomposite","volume":"14","author":"Khalil","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Taibah Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124884","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2020.124884","article-title":"Biocidal chitosan-magnesium oxide nanoparticles via a green precipitation process","volume":"411","author":"Karthikeyan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmst.2013.04.007","article-title":"Forsterite nanopowder: Structural characterization and biocompatibility evaluation","volume":"29","author":"Naghiu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mater. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2017.11.030","article-title":"Mechanical, corrosion and biocompatibility behaviour of Mg-3Zn-HA biodegradable composites for orthopaedic fixture accessories","volume":"78","author":"Jaiswal","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"16","article-title":"Electromagnetic Radiation and Human Health: A Review of Sources and Effects","volume":"4","author":"Zamanian","year":"2005","journal-title":"High Freq. Electron."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpolymj.2008.01.014","article-title":"Fast synthesis of temperature-sensitive PNIPAAm hydrogels by microwave irradiation","volume":"44","author":"Zhao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Polym. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.17311\/sciintl.2018.18.30","article-title":"Preparation, Characterization and Cross-linking of Chitosan by Microwave Assisted Synthesis","volume":"6","author":"Abraham","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Int."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1016\/S1367-5931(02)00306-X","article-title":"High-speed combinatorial synthesis utilizing microwave irradiation","volume":"6","author":"Kappe","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"87","article-title":"A Critical Overview on the Effect of Microwave Irradiation in Organic Synthesis","volume":"19","author":"Prieto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Chem. Rec."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssc.2005.09.023","article-title":"Synthesis of titania nanotubes by microwave irradiation","volume":"136","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Solid State Commun."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tet.2004.10.042","article-title":"Improvement in the synthesis of metallophthalocyanines using microwave irradiation","volume":"61","author":"Burczyk","year":"2005","journal-title":"Tetrahedron"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1039\/CO9970400373","article-title":"Microwave irradiation: More than just a method for accelerating reactions","volume":"4","author":"Langa","year":"1997","journal-title":"Contemp. Org. Synth."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2020.103543","article-title":"Performance of MgO and MgO\u2013SiO2 Systems Containing Seeds under Different Curing Conditions","volume":"108","author":"Singh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"(2025, February 27). ISO 10933 Standard. Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/68936.html."}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/7\/1496\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:03:42Z","timestamp":1760029422000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/7\/1496"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules30071496"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules30071496","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]]}}}