{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T21:45:07Z","timestamp":1775598307567,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,6]],"date-time":"2025-05-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746489600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000928","name":"Welch Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BX-0048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BX-0048"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000928","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000928","name":"Welch Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DMR-2122178"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DMR-2122178"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000928","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BX-0048"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BX-0048"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DMR-2122178"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DMR-2122178"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, a vanadyl phthalocyanine was synthesized and characterized using XRD, FTIR, and XPS, confirming the successful metalation of the phthalocyanine ring. XRD analysis showed the vanadyl phthalocyanine crystallized in the P-1 crystal lattice, with unit cell parameters a = 12.058 \u00c5, b = 12.598 \u00c5, and c = 8.719 \u00c5, and the lattice angels were 96.203\u00b0, 94.941\u00b0, and 68.204\u00b0. FTIR spectroscopy supported the metalation by the disappearance of the N-H stretch of the non-metalated phthalocyanine. The vanadyl phthalocyanine was tested as a heterogenous catalyst for the conversion of fructose into methyl levulinate in H2SO4\u2013methanol and HCl\u2013methanol systems. The H2SO4\u2013methanol reaction system catalyzed with the vanadyl phthalocyanine, and a zeroth-order rate constant of 1.10 \u00d7 10\u22126 M\/s was observed, which was 1.74 times faster than sulfuric acid alone. The HCl\u2013methanol system showed a zeroth-order of reaction with a rate constant of 2.33 \u00d7 10\u22126 M\/s, which was 1.3 times faster than the HCl\u2013methanol alone. While the HCl\u2013methanol system showed a faster reaction rate, product distribution favored methyl levulinate formation in the H2SO4\u2013methanol system. The main products identified were methyl levulinate and hepta-2,4-dienoic acid methyl ester, with a minor amount of hydroxymethylfurfural formed. These results suggest that vanadyl phthalocyanine can be effectively used as a catalyst to increase the rate of fructose conversion to methyl levulinate in either H2SO4 or HCl\u2013methanol.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30092065","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,6]],"date-time":"2025-05-06T11:38:06Z","timestamp":1746531486000},"page":"2065","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Vanadyl Phthalocyanine as a Low-Temperature\/Low-Pressure Catalyst for the Conversion of Fructose to Methyl Levulinate"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Juan","family":"Luna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1 West University Blvd, Brownsville, TX 78521, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4641-9109","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mataz","family":"Alcoutlabi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Drive, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Fletes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1201 W University Drive, Edinburg, TX 78539, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6174-3276","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Helia","family":"Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Integrative Biological and Chemical Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1 West University Blvd, Brownsville, TX 78521, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2487-885X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason G.","family":"Parsons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth Environmental and Marine Sciences, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, 1 W University Blvd, Brownsville, TX 78521, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-3449(99)00047-6","article-title":"Production of levulinic acid and use as a platform chemical for derived products","volume":"28","author":"Bozell","year":"2000","journal-title":"Resour. 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