{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T07:59:34Z","timestamp":1792569574558,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":244,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747180800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nitroxides are stable organic free radicals with a wide range of applications. They have found applications in chemistry, biochemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, and biomedicine as EPR\/NMR imaging techniques. As spin labels and probes, they are used in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy in the study of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and enzymes, as well as for measuring oxygen concentration in cells and cellular organelles, as well as tissues and intracellular pH. Their unique redox properties have allowed them to be used as exogenous antioxidants. In this review, we have discussed the chemical properties of nitroxides and their antioxidant properties. Furthermore, we have considered their use as radioprotectors and protective agents in ischemia\/reperfusion in vivo and in vitro. We also presented other applications of nitroxides in protecting cells and tissues from oxidative stress and in protein studies and discussed their use in EPR\/MRI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30102159","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]],"date-time":"2025-05-14T08:44:58Z","timestamp":1747212298000},"page":"2159","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Nitroxides: Chemistry, Antioxidant Properties, and Biomedical Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2590-7496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Gwozdzinski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5061-1596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Pieniazek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oncobiology and Epigenetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 90-236 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3702-1238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukasz","family":"Gwozdzinski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Lodz, 90-151 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.3109\/10715769009145700","article-title":"Principles of the metabolism of nitroxides and their implications for spin trapping","volume":"9","author":"Swartz","year":"1990","journal-title":"Free Radic. 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