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However, elucidating structure\u2013function relationships remains challenging due to the complex architecture of modern sensors and the irregular nanoscale morphology of many high-performance materials. In this study, we present a strategy for designing custom functional interfaces as well-defined platforms for probing interfacial processes. Focusing on epinephrine (EP) detection as an important representative of catecholamines, we compare the interfacial behavior of two carboxy-functionalized electrodes\u2014grafted with either para-aminobenzoic acid (PAB) or 3,4,5-tricarboxybenzenediazonium (ATA)\u2014against atomically flat highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) as a control. While both modifiers introduce carboxyl groups, PAB forms disordered multilayers that inhibit surface responsiveness, whereas ATA yields an ultrathin monolayer with accessible COOH groups. Electrochemical analysis reveals that ATA-HOPG significantly enhances EP detection at sub-micromolar levels, facilitated by electrostatic interactions between surface-bound COO\u2212 and protonated EP and its redox products. These results demonstrate that nanoscale control of diazonium grafting is crucial for optimizing bioanalyte recognition. More broadly, this work highlights how molecular-level surface engineering on high-quality carbon substrates can serve as a test-bed platform for the rational design of advanced electrochemical sensing interfaces.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30102236","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]],"date-time":"2025-05-21T06:31:27Z","timestamp":1747809087000},"page":"2236","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Towards a Rational Design of Biosensors: Engineering Covalently Grafted Interfacial Adlayers as a Testbed Platform for Electrochemical Detection of Epinephrine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Xiaoli","family":"Chang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Bioinspired Interfacial Materials Science, Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Bioinspired Interfacial Materials Science, Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oleksandr","family":"Ivasenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Bioinspired Interfacial Materials Science, Institute of Functional Nano & Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3184","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs35528d","article-title":"Biosensors: Sense and sensibility","volume":"42","author":"Turner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. 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