{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T19:21:42Z","timestamp":1780428102701,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751846400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Thailand Science and Research Innovation Fund (TSRI)","award":["SWU 020\/2566"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SWU 020\/2566"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rapid economic growth has led to an increase in the use of multilayer plastic packaging, which involves complex polymer compositions and hinders recycling. This study investigated the catalytic pyrolysis of plastic packaging waste in a 3000 cm3 semibatch reactor, aiming to optimize kerosene-like hydrocarbon production. The temperature (420\u2013500 \u00b0C), N2 flow rate (25\u2013125 mL\/min), and catalyst loading (5\u201320 wt.%) were examined individually and in combination with activated carbon and an Fe-doped dolomite (Fe\/DM) catalyst. Central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM) were used to identify the optimal conditions and synergistic effects. Pyrolysis product analysis involved simulation distillation gas chromatography (Sim-DGC), gas chromatography\/mass spectrometry (GC\/MS), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The optimal conditions (440 \u00b0C, 50 mL\/min N2 flow, catalyst loading of 10 wt.% using a 5 wt.% Fe-doped dolomite-activated carbon 0.6:0.4 mass\/molar ratio) yielded the highest pyrolysis oil (79.6 \u00b1 0.35 wt.%) and kerosene-like fraction (22.3 \u00b1 0.22 wt.%). The positive synergistic effect of Fe\/DM and activated carbon (0.6:0.4) enhanced the catalytic activity, promoting long-chain polymer degradation into mid-range hydrocarbons, with secondary cracking yielding smaller hydrocarbons. The pore structure and acid sites of the catalyst improved the conversion of intermediate hydrocarbons into aliphatic compounds (C5\u2013C15), increasing kerosene-like hydrocarbon production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30132884","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T10:03:27Z","timestamp":1751882607000},"page":"2884","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Optimization of Kerosene-like Fuels Produced via Catalytic Pyrolysis of Packaging Plastic Waste via Central Composite Design and Response Surface Methodology: Performance of Iron-Doped Dolomite and Activated Carbon"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Oratepin","family":"Arjharnwong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Master of Programme in Environmental Technology and Resources Management, Faculty of Environmental Culture and Ecotourism, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok 10110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tharapong","family":"Vitidsant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Technology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10110, Thailand"},{"name":"Centre of Fuels Research and Energy from Biomass, Chulalongkorn University, Saraburi 18110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aminta","family":"Permpoonwiwat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Arts and Science, University of Vanderbilt, Nashville, TN 37240, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naphat","family":"Phowan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment and Resources, Faculty of Environmental Culture and Ecotourism, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok 10110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Witchakorn","family":"Charusiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environment and Resources, Faculty of Environmental Culture and Ecotourism, Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok 10110, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2023.119630","article-title":"Catalytic Upcycling of Post-Consumer Multilayered Plastic Packaging Wastes for the Selective Production of Monoaromatic Hydrocarbons","volume":"351","author":"Pal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2022.105481","article-title":"Pyrolysis of COVID-19 Disposable Masks and Catalytic Cracking of the Volatiles","volume":"162","author":"Sun","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2022.06.018","article-title":"Catalytic Pyrolysis of Municipal Plastic Waste over Nano MIL-53 (Cu) Derived @Zeolite Y for Gasoline, Jet Fuel, and Diesel Range Fuel Production","volume":"164","author":"Sadrameli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2025.106934","article-title":"Enhanced Hydrogen Production Through Temperature-Optimized Pyrolysis of Mixed Plastic Waste for Sustainable Energy Recovery","volume":"196","author":"Kim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2018.07.088","article-title":"Kinetic Identification of Plastic Waste Pyrolysis on Zeolite-Based Catalysts","volume":"173","author":"Till","year":"2018","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101690","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joei.2024.101690","article-title":"Pyrolysis of Multilayered Plastic Packets to Hydrocarbon Fuel Feedstock: Thermal Degradation Behaviour, Kinetics and Thermodynamic Analysis, and Semi-Batch Studies","volume":"115","author":"Mahapatra","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Energy Inst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2022.107448","article-title":"Catalytic Depolymerization of Lignin via Transfer Hydrogenation Strategy over Skeletal CuZnAl Catalyst","volume":"237","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2024.106551","article-title":"Recent Advances in Polyolefinic Plastic Pyrolysis to Produce Fuels and Chemicals","volume":"180","author":"Dai","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1039\/D0GC03426F","article-title":"Direct Synthesis of a High-Density Aviation Fuel Using a Polycarbonate","volume":"23","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Green Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106040","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtice.2025.106040","article-title":"The Physicochemical Characterization of Diesel-Like Fuels Derived from Plastic Waste Pyrolysis","volume":"171","author":"Moonsin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2025.119511","article-title":"Pyrolysis of Plastic Waste for Sustainable Energy Recovery: Technological Advancements and Environmental Impacts","volume":"326","author":"Hasan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rineng.2024.102066","article-title":"Maximizing Waste Plastic Oil Yield and Enhancing Energy and Environmental Metrics Through Pyrolysis Process Optimization and Fuel Modification","volume":"22","author":"Vellaiyan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Results Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2024.141500","article-title":"Investigation of Gasoline-Like Transportation Fuel Obtained by Plastic Waste Pyrolysis and Distillation","volume":"447","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2025.106950","article-title":"Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Oils Are Promising Feedstock for Sustainable Monomers Production via Steam Cracking Process","volume":"186","author":"Karaba","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2017.10.005","article-title":"Upgrading Bio-Oil Produced from the Catalytic Pyrolysis of Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Straw Using Calcined Dolomite","volume":"6","author":"Charusiri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, B., Mbeugang, C.F.M., Xie, X., Wei, J., Zhang, S., Zhang, L., Samahy, A.A.E., Xu, D., Wang, Q., and Zhang, S. (2023). Catalysis\/CO2 Sorption Enhanced Pyrolysis-Gasification of Biomass for H2-Rich Gas Production: Effects of Activated Carbon, NiO Active Component and Calcined Dolomite. Fuel, 334.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2022.126842"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110024","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jece.2023.110024","article-title":"Catalytic Hydropyrolysis of Biomass over NiMo Bimetallic Carbon-Based Catalysts","volume":"11","author":"Wu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Environ. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuproc.2025.108218","article-title":"Optimization of Ni Loading Amount in Ni-CeZrO2 Catalyst for Dodecane Steam Reforming for the Upcycling of Plastic Pyrolysis Oil","volume":"272","author":"Bae","year":"2025","journal-title":"Fuel Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118076","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2023.118076","article-title":"Production of Light Olefins and Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from the Pyrolysis of Waste Plastic Straws over High-Silica Zeolite-Based Catalysts","volume":"245","author":"Valizadeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1016\/S1872-5813(24)60447-0","article-title":"Catalytic Conversion of Biomass Pyrolysis Volatiles over Composite Catalysts of Activated Carbon and HY Zeolite","volume":"52","author":"Ji","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Fuel Chem. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2024.106692","article-title":"Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Waste Using Activated Carbon from Cotton Waste","volume":"182","author":"Nazarloo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cattod.2018.04.028","article-title":"Investigation on Hydroisomerization and Hydrocracking of C15\u2013C18 n-Alkanes Utilizing a Hollow Tubular Ni-Mo\/SAPO-11 Catalyst with High Selectivity of Jet Fuel","volume":"330","author":"Xing","year":"2019","journal-title":"Catal. Today"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsusc.2017.08.241","article-title":"Box\u2013Behnken Design Approach Towards Optimization of Activated Carbon Synthesized by Co-Pyrolysis of Waste Polyester Textiles and MgCl2","volume":"427","author":"Yuan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rechem.2025.102247","article-title":"Optimized Pyrolysis of Household Plastic Waste in Indonesia for Oil Production: Hydrocarbon Profiling, Fuel Alternative, and Potential Biomedical Application","volume":"15","author":"Andalia","year":"2025","journal-title":"Results Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psep.2024.04.079","article-title":"Synergistic Enhancement of Bio-Oil Production, Quality, and Optimization from Co-Pyrolysis Purun Tikus (Eleocharis dulcis) and Plastic Waste Using Response Surface Methodology","volume":"187","author":"Amrullah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Process Saf. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116813","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2019.116813","article-title":"Catalytic upgrading of beech wood pyrolysis oil over iron- and zinc-promoted hierarchical MFI zeolites","volume":"264","author":"Palizdar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2024.106360","article-title":"Jet fuel range hydrocarbon generation from catalytic pyrolysis of lignin and polypropylene with iron-modified activated carbon","volume":"177","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2024.153078","article-title":"Counteractive catalytic effects of FeNi- versus Fe- and Ni- in plastic pyrolysis for advanced-quality jet fuel production","volume":"494","author":"Fu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105688","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaap.2022.105688","article-title":"From wood plastic composite waste to high-value aromatics via catalytic pyrolysis over an activated carbon","volume":"176","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2022.138464","article-title":"Towards jet fuel from technical lignins: Feedstock-catalyst-product interactions revealed during catalytic hydrogenolysis","volume":"451","author":"Kollman","year":"2023","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120858","DOI":"10.1016\/j.indcrop.2025.120858","article-title":"The structural characteristics and pyrolysis products properties based on cotton stalks and husks","volume":"227","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ind. Crops Prod."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.powtec.2017.01.037","article-title":"Hydrocracking of a plastic mixture over various micro-mesoporous composite zeolites","volume":"316","author":"Munir","year":"2017","journal-title":"Powder Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cattod.2020.01.033","article-title":"Improving low-temperature properties of lignin-derived jet-fuel-ranged hydrocarbons via hydroisomerization","volume":"365","author":"Nie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Catal. Today"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2020.118498","article-title":"Thermal conversion of polystyrene plastic waste to liquid fuel via ethanolysis","volume":"279","author":"Ahmad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccst.2024.100285","article-title":"The application of spent catalysts from catalytic pyrolysis of plastic waste as solid functional materials","volume":"13","author":"Sipra","year":"2024","journal-title":"Carbon Capture Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2025.114793","article-title":"Pyrolysis of mixed contaminated plastic wastes: Assessing the influence of polymers composition, temperature and residence time","volume":"201","author":"Sorino","year":"2025","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2022.120349","article-title":"Optimizing the effect of a mixture of light naphtha, diesel and gasoline fuels on engine performance and emission values on an HCCI engine","volume":"330","author":"Kocakulak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"e01836","article-title":"Pyrolysis of plastic waste into diesel engine-grade oil","volume":"21","author":"Ndiaye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Afr."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fuel.2023.128749","article-title":"Synergistic effect and chlorine migration behavior in co-pyrolysis of Pingshuo coal and polyvinyl chloride and directional chlorine enrichment using calcium oxide","volume":"349","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fuel"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2639","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.1c04409","article-title":"Catalytic copyrolysis of sugarcane leaves and low-density polyethylene waste to produce bio-oil and chemicals using copper-doped HZSM-35","volume":"36","author":"Charusiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Energy Fuel"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.168344","article-title":"Catalytic stepwise pyrolysis for dechlorination and chemical recycling of PVC-containing mixed plastic wastes: Influence of temperature, heating rate, and catalyst","volume":"908","author":"Hu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scp.2023.101310","article-title":"Optimization of pyrolysis process parameters for a higher yield of plastic oil with enhanced physicochemical properties derived from medical plastic wastes","volume":"36","author":"Vellaiyan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Chem. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144695","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cej.2023.144695","article-title":"Optimization of the process parameters of catalytic plastic pyrolysis for oil production using design of experiment approaches: A review","volume":"471","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20306","DOI":"10.1021\/acsomega.2c02301","article-title":"Combined activated carbon with spent fluid catalytic cracking catalyst and MgO for the catalytic conversion of waste polyethylene wax into diesel-like hydrocarbon fuels","volume":"7","author":"Kasetsupsin","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Omega"}],"container-title":["Molecules"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/13\/2884\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:06:03Z","timestamp":1760033163000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1420-3049\/30\/13\/2884"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["molecules30132884"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/molecules30132884","relation":{},"ISSN":["1420-3049"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1420-3049","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]]}}}