{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:58:29Z","timestamp":1787029109980,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760918400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008530","name":"European Regional Development Fund","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["KK.01.1.1.02.0021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KK.01.1.1.02.0021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008530","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Molecules"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examined the characteristics of essential oils and ethanolic extracts from nine pepper species\u2019 fruits to determine their chemical compositions and assess their biological activity. Ethanolic extracts and essential oils were analyzed using HPLC, GC-MS, FTIR, and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant activity (DPPH assay), and antibacterial efficacy against five bacterial strains were assessed. Additionally, multielement analysis was performed using the TXRF method. The results demonstrated that the yields and chemical compositions differed markedly according to the pepper origin and extraction method. Ethanolic extracts consistently demonstrated greater total phenolic content and total flavonoid content and enhanced antioxidant and antibacterial properties relative to their respective essential oils. The increased bioactivity is due to the presence of non-volatile, polar compounds, which are not effectively transferred via hydrodistillation. Piperine was solely detected in extracts from black, green, white, Bengali, and Voatsiperifery peppers. This study emphasizes the necessity of optimizing extraction techniques to enhance the bioactivity of pepper extracts, highlighting their potential as sources of natural antioxidants and antibacterial agents.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules30204140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T14:53:19Z","timestamp":1761058399000},"page":"4140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Characterization of Essential Oils and Ethanolic Extracts from Nine Pepper Species: Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activity and Spectroscopic Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"30","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7477-3052","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Sander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2163-2589","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maja","family":"Bival \u0160tefan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 20, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tea","family":"Sander","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8427-6482","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dajana","family":"Ku\u010di\u0107 Grgi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8464-5599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Parlov Vukovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NMR Centre, Ru\u0111er Bo\u0161kovi\u0107 Institute, Bijeni\u010dka cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-2241-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iva","family":"Bla\u017eevi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4741-0819","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jasna","family":"Jablan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Maruli\u0107a 20, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00edaz-Guerrero, P., Panzani, S., Sanmartin, C., Muntoni, C., Taglieri, I., and Venturi, F. 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